John Steinbeck's novel Cannery Row Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

John Steinbeck's tale Cannery Row - Essay Example As the conversation features Doc is a man of logical methodology, and yet, he is keen on appreciating the extravagances of everyday life. He isn't the one to pursue the ideal trains throughout everyday life, except is eager to continue cheerfully with the accessible degrees of order. The perusers first observe him leaving his Western Biological Laboratory for buying five quarts of brew. He isn't intrigued to step the beaten and routine tracks of life and shows resistance towards the personal stakes that assume responsibility for the general public and his methodology is clear in his recommended â€Å"method for seeking retribution on a bank on the off chance that anybody ought to ever need to: 'Lease a wellbeing store box, at that point store in it one new salmon and leave for six months.† Thus Doc is a person who acknowledges and praises the opposing features of life and his Western Biological is a sort of test research facility for the living things according to their degree s of movement. This examination traces that a genuine thinker (the acknowledged soul) knows the past, present and the future and they are unified with the, the extraordinary leveler of mankind, the Time. They are unaffected constantly to day tumults, good and bad times happening on the planet outside. The creator looks at Mack and the young men, the standard people, to such rationalists as they have the ability to get by in this universe of majorities and sets of contrary energies, similar to bliss and distress, light and dimness and so forth. There are others, the straightforward kinds of individuals, to whom numbness is delight and they likewise stay upbeat, similar to scholars, in all conditions. The astute, fruitful and serious individuals stay upset forever; their brain is loaded with tumults over the business and common difficulties they face and the creator sorts them as men with â€Å" terrible stomachs and awful souls† however Mack and the young men are fit genuinely and intellectua lly. They are lighthearted individuals, eat what they like, and do what they wish.â

Crocodile Physics Essays - Electromagnetic Radiation,

Crocodile Physics Crocodile Physics Crocodile Physics resembles a very much supplied material science lab where you can examination to your heart's substance. Covering numerous schedule themes, here is the equipment leveled for the little screen. There are masses, streetcars, focal points and electronic segments to amass, examination and take estimations with. You can swing pendulums, change gravity, change edge of slopes to find out about powers. Magnificent are the optics devices which let you split light into its hues with a crystal and perceive how fiber optics transmit light. A segment on eye deserts, where you increment the central length of a scene focal point and see what that does to the light beams will make an amazing educating instrument. In spite of the fact that it comes with worksheets, those with time to extra can utilize it to make noteworthy intuitive instructional exercises. Crocodile Physics has been created from Crocodile Clips 3, the acclaimed Secondary School Physics test system utilized in more than 35 nations and suggested by governments around the world. It's a test system for Middle and High school and school material science courses. Crocodile Physics incorporates a ground-breaking optics test system, with a scope of parts including focal points, crystals, mirrors and light sources.You can set the frequency of the light being produced from your source, and pick equal pillars, wandering pillars or beams. You can likewise set the elements of the source. Crocodile Physics contains a full scope of electrical segments. Each school branch of knowledge is secured: from the essential batteries, bulbs and switches - which are moreover given in pictorial structure, to help comprehension of the main standards - to further developed rationale entryways, coordinated circuits and semiconductors. An immense segment library gives you the opportunity to explore such that suits your educating, and permits intrigued understudies to investigate the subject all the more profoundly. One of the key highlights which marks Crocodile Physics out from other encouraging programming is the Incorporated Multimedia Editor. This permits you to adjust our exercises to suit your requirements, or to compose your own without any preparation. The reenactment is numerically precise, permitting you to test structures and investigate the laws of Physics. Most segment esteems can be changed voluntarily. Crocodile Material science comes total with more than 100 intelligent on-screen exercises, covering a scope of subjects in power, gadgets, optics, mechanics, elements and sound. They consolidate full reproduction with data, questions and replies. It's anything but difficult to coordinate them into Book reference Not accessible

This is not a smoking gun for superfluidity. This is a cannon.

“This is not a smoking gun for superfluidity. This is a cannon.” So today at work, I had a little free time so I decided to peruse some of my favorite websites for news and updates, but I have this tendency of opening too many windows so my computer crashed and I had to restart. When I restarted my browser, I was at my homepage where I was pleasantly surprised to find some breaking news. While attempting to understand the fundamental physics behind this discovery would probably be challenging for me right now, I think its pretty awesome that these students and faculty could make such an awesome breakthrough. Wolfgang Ketterle, a faculty member, is actually one MITs Nobel Laureates. He won the Nobel along with two other MIT alumni a few years back. From the MIT News Office: MIT physicists create new form of matter June 22, 2005 CAMBRIDGE, Mass. MIT scientists have brought a supercool end to a heated race among physicists: They have become the first to create a new type of matter, a gas of atoms that shows high-temperature superfluidity. For the full article about the physics breakthrough, click here. For all you out there interested in learning about some other cool physics research projects, heres a link for more info about Professor Ketterles Lab and Research Group as well.

Definition of Visitor Attraction - 634 Words

Visitor attraction management Module: TSM08776 Visitor attraction management Assessment: A Matriculation No: 40228856 Due on: 14.03.2016, 16:00 Word count: 499 Module leader: Prof A. Leask The purpose of this essay is to further discuss the definition of a visitor attraction. It shall further resolve if events should be defined as visitor attractions, as Swarbrook (2001) characterizes them. Or rather should not be included in the definition as Getz (2008) argues. Visit England (2012) assigns the following characteristics to the definition; the fundamental purpose of an attraction must be one of the following: entertainment, interest or education, in unique occasions also worship. More than that it has to be†¦show more content†¦(1992) The tourism system, an introduction text (2nd ed.). London, NJ: experiences (pp. 1-12). New York, NY: Cognizant Communication Corporation. Swarbrooke, J. (2001) Key challenges for visitor attraction managers in the UK. Journal of Leisure Property, 1 (4), 318-336. Visit England. (2012) Visitor Attraction Trends in England, [online] Availabe at: https://www.visitengland.com/sites/default/files/va_2013_trends_in_england_summary_report_tcm30-38297.pdf Accesed: 11 March 2016 4Show MoreRelatedThe Educational Value of Exhibitions in Musuems1189 Words   |  5 PagesDefinition of exhibition Before proceeding to the discussion of relationship between exhibition, communication and education, the meaning of the term should be clarified first. The term exhibition implies several meanings owing to a movement within different context and style of each professional realm. As the definition shows in oxford dictionary, the word exhibition can be defined as ‘a public display of works of art or items of interest, held in an art gallery or museum or at a trade fair’Read MoreEssay Tourism ]1122 Words   |  5 Pageshis daily universe. The Websters dictionary defines tourism as the guiding or managing of tourists; the promotion or encouragement of touring: the accommodation of tourists. Both definitions are apt for tourism. The private sector of tourism includes lodging, food, transportation, recreation facilities, attractions, travel agents, and tour operators. These in turn are supported by a variety of specialized services, such as research promotion and printing. In the public sector, promotion of tourismRead More Tourism ] Essay1122 Words   |  5 Pageshis daily universe.† The Webster’s dictionary defines tourism as â€Å"the guiding or managing of tourists; the promotion or encouragement of touring: the accommodation of tourists.† Both definitions are apt for tourism. The private sector of tourism includes lodging, food, transportation, recreation facilities, attractions, travel agents, and tour operators. These in turn are supported by a variety of specialized services, such as research promotion and printing. In the public sector, promotion of tourismRead More The Economic Effects Tourism Has on New Zealand Essay1407 Words   |  6 Pagestime, care has to be taken not to mistreat it. The social and cultural impacts of tourism on New Zealand so far have been on the whole beneficial but as tourism continues to grow this could change. Non-economic benefits of tourism are maximized when visitors and hosts share mutual interests and when trade is relatively small. However these factors limit potential tourist markets and income. One solution to this problem could be promotion of New Zealand as a high quality destination at a higher priceRead MoreTourism in New Zealand1430 Words   |  6 Pagestime, care has to be taken not to mistreat it. The social and cultural impacts of tourism on New Zealand so far have been on the whole beneficial but as tourism continues to grow this could change. Non-economic benefits of tourism are maximized when visitors and hosts share mutual interests and when trade is relatively small. However these factors limit potential tourist markets and income. One solution to this problem could be promotion of New Zealand as a high quality destination at a higher priceRead MoreConey Island And Disneyland Analysis1671 Words   |  7 PagesThe cultural significance of Coney Island and Disneyland are demonstrated by the value it brought to the American people through their simila rities in the reason behind its creation and the various attractions, but also the differences in nostalgia to certain audiences and the ideation of the attractions. Whereas Coney Island was the wholesome amusement park that helped immigrants assimilate to American culture with its crude atmosphere, Disneyland was the ‘walk down memory lane’ amusement park thatRead MoreThe Persistence Of Ancient Symbols From Neolithic And Pictish Eras1568 Words   |  7 Pagesanswers’. By bringing together cultural artefacts and works of art in one venue this exhibition raises questions about how objects come to be defined as art and whether our definitions depend on the context within which an object is viewed. The thesis of the exhibition therefore is that in placing these objects before the visitor, the juxtaposition of the ancient artefacts with more recent art encourages him or her to consider how we define works as ‘art’. In particular the exhibition enables peopleRead MoreThe Similarities And Differences Of Tourism And Event Management1424 Words   |  6 Pagestourism plays a large role for Vietnam’s economy. Tourism can be define as the activities of persons travelling to and from places outside of their usual environment for leisure, business or other purposes for less than one year (Getz.D, 1992). Definitions Tourism management is the planning and management of travel for people who are concerned with the planning of their own travel (Getz, D 1991). While event management is the area of design, production and management of planned events such as festivalsRead Moreheritage and tourism relationshp1421 Words   |  6 PagesHeritage Tourism is traveling to experience the places and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past and present. It includes historic, cultural and natural attractions. (Heritage Tourism Economic Development) Its activities and services which provide international and domestic visitors with the opportunity to experience understand and enjoy the special values of a region’s heritage, are sometimes referred to as heritage tourism. (Lorton Consulting) It has beenRead MoreEssay on Similarities and Differences Between TH1700 Words   |  7 Pages1, Definitions: 1.1. Tourism: according to F.W. Ogilvie (1933), tourism can be defined as ‘persons who go to somewhere rather than home or workplace for a period of time and spend money in that place’. But this definition has its limitations as it is too broad and it does not have specific standards or criteria to define tourism. Many organizations have been tried to come up with an accurate definition of tourism, but till now they only commonly accepted some factors that help to define tourism

Human Beings Are Very Fickle Creatures By Nature Essay

With all of this understanding, how does one progress? Human beings are very fickle creatures by nature which complicates the study of a topic as emotional and turbulent as that of relationships. Because of this, it is difficult to categorize every friendship into a single mold. One cannot simply say that because two friends relocate to different towns, their friendship will not last. Just as one cannot assume that because two friends graduate from college, their collegiate friendship will be lost. In many instances, women seek out a greater number of friendships throughout their lifetimes while still maintaining those friendships already made. As a result, a woman must learn how to become the best friend she can be to ensure that she will not lose precious friendships. Fortunately for women, there is a constant exploration for the framework of a perfect best-friendship. One woman’s theory in particular has amassed an impressive amount of popularity in current pop culture. Mobinah Ahmad created a test that categorized people in her life into six categories: PreAquaintance, Acquaintance Level 1, Acquaintance Level 2, Acquaintance Level 3, PreFriend, and Friend (Moulton 1). Mobinah is a young woman with a Master’s degree in digital communication and culture, and, like Mindy Kaling, a minority in American society (1). She is able to classify friendships based off how often and openly they communicate, how they know each other, and other vital friendship building blocks (SeeShow MoreRelatedThe Call Of Cthulhu, By Nathaniel Hawthorne1388 Words   |  6 Pageshow humanity is fickle and humans are not the ultimate authority in the world. In Hawthorne’s story, we are able to see how the attempt to control humanity is worthless as we a re all doomed and mortal creatures. As Aylmer attempts to remove said humanity, he ultimately loses life as they are intertwined. Similarly, Lovecraft explores a world where humans are not the only thing in the world, nor the most powerful. Humans are shown as weak, especially in comparison to the creature Cthulhu. ThisRead MoreThe Call Of Cthulhu, By Nathaniel Hawthorne1472 Words   |  6 Pageshow humanity is fickle and humans are not the ultimate authority in the world. In Hawthorne’s story, we are able to see how the attempt to control humanity is worthless as we are all doomed and mortal creatures. As Aylmer attempts to remove said humanity, he ultimately loses life as they are intertwined. Similarly, Lovecraft explores a world where humans are not the only thing in the world, nor the highest power. Humans are shown as weak, especially in comparison to the creature Cthulhu. ThisRead MoreThe Protestant Reformation And Renaissance : The Renaissance And The Renais sance1008 Words   |  5 Pagesimpact of the Renaissance is the inspiration of human thought and choices created by the Humanist writings of the time. These changes set by the humanist movement provided people with incentive to explain how they fit in the world. In terms of religious reasoning, Mirandola presents us with a perspective of how God thought of creating us and of the kindness he gave to us by allowing us to make decisions. â€Å"the Great Artisan desired that there be some creature to think on the plan of his great work, andRead MoreAnalysis Of The Poem Pied And Blackberry Picking 1264 Words   |  6 PagesNature is explored in a number of different ways in ‘Pied Beauty’, ‘Pike’ and ‘Blackberry Picking’. The poems all focus on different sides to nature. All three poems focus on the beauty of nature but â€Å"Pike† and â€Å"Blackberry Picking† on a more negative side to nature. Nature is praised in each of the th ree poems but all have very different meanings and perspectives on nature. Hopkins Poem ‘Pied Beauty’ explores nature s beauty. It’s described as the perfect place. The poem begins with â€Å"Glory be toRead MoreEssay about Coleridges Rime of the Ancient Mariner1578 Words   |  7 Pagesmost surreal and fatal sea passage, whereas Coleridge chooses a wedding, an event where two lives are just beginning as one, and picks a young man who is described as listening to the story â€Å"like a three-years’ child.† (Line 19) A three year old being one who has just begun his life. By setting this scene with these two characters, Coleridge has already contrasted elements of the living and the dead. This, however, is a superficial introduction into this contrast and Coleridge probes much deeperRead MoreEssay on Rappaccinis Daughter by Nathaniel Hawthorne948 Words   |  4 Pagesmotives and thoughts. During the story, Hawthorne gives the reader many clues of Giovannis selfish and fickle nature. In the end, Beatrice dies because o f Giovanni and his own poisonous nature. The moral of the story is that every persons character is both good and evil in nature. Nathaniel Hawthorne uses Giovanni and Beatrice to explore the impossibility of totally separating good and evil from the human character. At the beginning of the story, a young man named Giovanni Guasconti is introducedRead MoreLack of Knowledge Thesis Examination2465 Words   |  10 Pagesknowledge is incomplete? Is it still powerful or just a burden? Frankenstein and his creature are a prime example of the burden brought on ones life through incomplete knowledge. Frankenstein has a great grasp of knowledge of the physical world but lacks that grasp of knowledge of the emotional world. He creates a creature with the mind of a human but with a body that is severely disformed. I will discuss how the creature can be viewed as a symbol of Frankensteins lack of knowledge and how that canRead More Lack Of Knowledge Thesis Examination Essay2356 Words   |  10 Pagesknowledge is incomplete? Is it still powerful or just a burden? Frankenstein and his creature are a prime example of the burden brought on one’s life through incomplete knowledge. Frankenstein has a great grasp of knowledge of the physical world but lacks that grasp of knowledge of the emotional world. He creates a creature with the mind of a human but with a body that is severely disformed. I will discuss how the creature can be viewed as a symbol of Frankenstein’s lack of knowledge and how that canRead MoreUse Of Language And Context Voltaire s Candide Essay1544 Words   |  7 Pagesnarrator. This is a fiction created by Voltaire to distance himself from the book and to help the reader to understand the satirical nature of Candide. Telling the story from a third person perspective allows the narrator to know all the thing the characters in the book do not. He is omniscience, knowing everything about the circumstances and the characters without being involved with them. This approach works particularly well in Candide. It allows the reader to stand back and see how disturbingRead MoreIn Nature Of Politics, We Have Read And Gone Over Many1743 Words   |  7 Pages In Nature of Politics, we have read and gone over many pieces of literature ranging from Machiavelli’s The Prince, which focuses on the art of maintained and failed principalities, to the Federalist papers’ rational defense of the United States constitution and pluralistic decentralization of government to Dostoevsky’s idea of â€Å"miracle, mystery, and authority† that is framed by the Grand Inquisitor detailed, albeit somewhat twisted, thinking and so on. From these readings, one is taught to grasp

The Buddha Image A Foundation for Attachment Free Essays

Madeline Brisbane Buddhism Course Assignment 11/16/11 The Buddha Image: A Foundation for Attachment According to Freedburg, the author of The Power of Images, a figure resembling human form â€Å"enables the reconstitution of life† and makes â€Å"the absent present and the dead alive† (p. 11)1. An image preserves the aura of the person it resembles, and therefore allows for an eternal essence to remain after death. We will write a custom essay sample on The Buddha Image: A Foundation for Attachment or any similar topic only for you Order Now Within the realm of Buddhism, images of the Buddha serve a wide variety of spiritual and practical purposes. For some, keeping a Buddha image in their home is a sign of respect. Others find it comforting and peaceful to look at a Buddha image. In some parts of the world, specifically Southeast Asia, the Buddha image is a symbol of supernatural power and protection, and is essential to the efficacy of rituals. If a ritual fails to succeed in the absence of a Buddha image, then there must be an interdependency between images and ritualistic success. And if an interdependency exists, then the entire concept contradicts the Buddha’s teaching of non-attachment because the ritual becomes attached to the presence of a Buddha image. Through an analysis of he origins and evolution of the use of Buddha images and relics in Southeast Asia, it would appear that an obsession with the presence of a Buddha image has emerged, conflicting with Buddha’s teaching about non-attachment. As the second Noble Truth states, attachment is the origin of suffering. Therefore, to foster an interdependency between images and ritualistic success would go against the most fundamental values of Buddhism. In order to maintain the most basic ideals of Buddhism, the Buddha image must only serve as a reminder of the Buddha’s presence rather than s a necessary component of practicing rituals effectively. To image the Buddha is not a modern concept; the Buddha must have always been imagined through stories, myths, and symbols. However, there are many legends surrounding the origins or the first Buddha image. The most relevant theory regarding the original Buddha image to Southeast Asia is the story of the sandalwood statue. The story appears in many Buddhist texts that emerged over time throughout Asia. Most relevant to Southeast Asia is the Pali text from Sri Lanka recounted in the Kosala-Bimba-Vannana. In ummary, the story claims that after King Pasanedi of Kosala arrived to the Jetavana monastery to visit the Buddha only to find the Buddha away on a Journey, he leaves in disappointment. He returns later and tells the Buddha that to he would like to â€Å"have an image made in the likeness of the Tathagata†¦ for the benefit of the whole world. 2 The Buddha then adds that those who build an image of the Buddha will â€Å"accrue a great, immeasurable, incalculable benefit. â€Å"3 Upon seeing the gilded, yellow- robed statue, with the Buddha’s teaching inscribed into the statue, the Buddha xpands on the praiseworthy benefits ot making Buddha images . These benefits include avoiding rebirth into Buddhist hells; being reborn into wealthy families; and eventually attaining enlightenment. Wit hin the statue, the dharma and the Buddha image are â€Å"cohesively conjoined. 4From this ancient tale, it is clear that the first Buddha image was built based on the kings desire to feel the presence of the Buddha even when he was not physically present. The need to feel the Buddha’s presence has survived thousands of years, as many Buddhists still cherish the Buddha image as a reminder of his prevailing presence. Despite the non-theistic nature of early Buddhism, the dedication that followers of the path have to keeping Buddha images around illustrates that they worshipped and continue to worship the Buddha greatly. They cherish the notion of feeling the Buddha’s presence at all times. The Theravada branch of Buddhism exemplifies the extent to which the Buddha’s presence is valued by followers of the path. As Theravada ascended into Southeast Asia from Sri Lanka after the eleventh century B. C. E. , vernacular traditions ecame increasingly popular. In nature, Theravada Buddhism worships the historical model of the Buddha as a superhuman capable of miraculous deeds. Relics were therefore treasured as objects of magical power that allowed an â€Å"actual physical connection to the Buddha† because they were either part of the Buddha’s body or came into physical contact with it. 5 Because it became impossible to exist in the presence of the Buddha in his physical form after his death, inserting a relic into an image became a way to restore the physical presence of the Buddha. In doing so, he image would supposedly provide protection against evil forces. However, when the Buddha image is revered for its supernatural protective strength, the Buddha image becomes a controversial concept. It seems that the more recent traditions of magical expectation and anticipation associated with Buddha images and relics has caused a shift away from the historical emphasis on the original monastic view of high moral responsibility and spiritual practice. Instead of following one’s own karmic duties of doing good in order to receive good or trusting one’s own ability to practice ituals successfully the old-fashioned way, the presence of the Buddha image during ritual has turned into a necessity for many Buddhists. If the presence of a Buddha image is necessary for rituals to work properly, then there has to an interdependency between the Buddha image and ritualistic success. Western scholar Donald Swearer, author of Becoming the Buddha, argues that â€Å"the Buddha must be†¦ present for the ritual to be efficacious for the dhamma to flourish, and for the sangha to prosper. † Moreover, scholar David Eckel makes the point that â€Å"people experience mental nguish when they cannot see the Buddha. 6 Wouldn’t the creation of images therefore foster an attachment between humans and objects? This correlation between the Buddha image and the effectiveness of rituals, the dharma, and the sangha makes the Buddha image a very powerful entity. There is even an association between kings and material symbols of the Buddha, particularly relics and images. There is a Thai custom of swearing allegiance to the king in front of the Emerald Buddha image; the Buddha image can therefore be seen as a symbol of power and not Just a representation of the Buddha. Furthermore, the Buddha image is presently interpreted as a sign of respect and a way for devotees to make merit; â€Å"the Buddha’s field of merit is operative†¦ hrough his continued post-Nibbana presence in his relics and images. â€Å"7 It Buddha images currently tunction as a means to validate the effectiveness of rituals and to make merit, then there is an undeniable interdependency between the Buddha image and the success of rituals as an expression of religious devotion, and therefore an attachment between the two. Due to the fact that non-attachment is one of the most fundamental values established ithin Buddhism, to classify the Buddha image as a necessity would be to diverge from Buddhism altogether. In simpler terms, to be dependent on the Buddha image is to form an attachment with it, and to form an attachment is to defy the basic ideals of Buddhism. Thus, the evolution of the Buddha image as a means of preserving the Buddha’s presence into an entity that is necessary for the proper execution of rituals and spiritual success, then we can no longer categorize this concept as an appropriate element of Buddhism. The Four Noble truths are the essence of the Buddhist path, and to defy them is to defy Buddhism altogether. How to cite The Buddha Image: A Foundation for Attachment, Papers

Knowledge Management Processes and Technologies

Question: Discuss about the Knowledge Management for Processes and Technologies. Answer: Introduction Human resource management can be considered as a system of application of various concepts that guides the HRM practices towards a more efficient work performance. The HRM sector of any country plays a very important role in setting out certain working principles guidelines that are needed for a smooth flow of workforces. Moreover, a set of skilled and dedicated employees support their organizations in fulfilling their performance objective (Argote, 2012). Due to certain issues in Singapore, the existing HRM is not capable enough in producing the desired number of workforces. Approximately, 258,000 retirements might occur by 2030 while at the same time, only 171,000 employees would form the new workforce. Another problem is the availability of skilled local employees, which makes this important for the HRM to invite foreign aspirants to fill the gaps created. Foreign aspirants are mainly from the Asian region (Becerra-Fernandez Sabherwal, 2014). Explicit and Tacit forms of knowledge To mitigate the present and the upcoming issues related to the workforce availability, the HRM of the Singapore needs to undergo some kinds of restructuring under the supervision of a governing body. The governing body is required to bring the required changes in the existing face of HR practices. KM and OL principles are those governing body, which can help in restructuring the HRM of Singapore. These principles are solution for several of working domains of HRM such as future recruitment, training for the development retention of skills and inception of reward system to incept motivational thoughts into employees (Dent Whitehead, 2013). Knowledge Management can be referred to a process that helps in managing the learning system in the organization. It works through sharing of knowledge skills that are influenced by various technological cultural environments of an organization. The explicit form of knowledge management refers to the established mode of training and development programme in the organization. On a same note, the tacit type of knowledge management can be defined as a resource to socialization of few activities in the organization. It mainly resembles its familiarities with the succession planning strategy in the organization. The Human Resource Management of Singapore has loads of problems in the form of available number of skilled employees. Nevertheless, different types of knowledge management are extremely helpful in sorting out the created problem (Dent Whitehead, 2013). KM OL Principles The HRM of the Singapore needs to incept the KM principles into its working domains to cater the inclusion of skills sharing. The principle is cooperated with various external internal bodies of an organization, which provides supportive hands to the inclusion of the principle. The probable numbers of retiring workforces need to impart their learned skills to the new employees. It ensures a strong bonding of the fresh employees with the organizational values. Indeed, this is very important for the success of organizational objective (Deshpande, 2012). Imparting the knowledge to the new workers mitigates any risk of knowledge gaps in the fresh workforce. It is not only related to the knowledge and skills sharing but; it also imparts values from one to another. Indeed, an organization needs both the committed and dedicated employees that have values for the organizational objectives. To fill up the gaps created by the unavailability of a sufficient number of local workforces in the Singapore, knowledge management needs to be retained for an improved performance. Organizational Learning (OL) can be referred to a result that is produced because of proper knowledge management in the organization. Organizational learning can only be maintained if a controlled management of knowledge in the organization governs it (Fuller, 2012). KN and OL can be classified as an integral part of organizational practices as it helps in developing skilled and honest employees that are an asset for an organization. However, both the processes need certain strategies that drive the operation of these processes. Training and development are one of such tools that help in the implementation of these principles. Training helps in gaining the necessary knowledge and skills that are a part of knowledge management programme. It also helps in learning the basic skills that helps in justifying the allotted roles responsibilities (Geisler Wickramasinghe, 2015). Incapable face of HRM in Singapore The incapable face of HRM in Singapore needs to work on incepting some training and development programmes into the list of their working domains. The training may include the participation of those employees, which are near to their retirement. Moreover, fresh employees might get to know about something very important, which might not have caught the attention of the HRM and the Management. Nevertheless, a system can only brief the requirement to a particular individual but it may not necessarily guide to the implementation of required techniques. Some of the employees might find few difficulties in justifying their roles; however, a predecessor can efficiently narrate the responsibility. Moreover, the predecessor has practically implemented those techniques during his or her works (Grandori, 2012). The HRM needs to understand the most feasible learning programme for its workforce. The development programme is governed by various factors such as characteristics, culture, personality traits and many more. Those who are experienced in the organization, they generally have an ocean of knowledge with them; however, they lack in memory strength and absorbing speed. On a same note, the fresh and young talents are more energetic, quick absorber of the learning modules and an improved memory. Moreover, the HRM in the Singapore needs to analyse the most feasible mode of training programme rather than implementing the one form of training for all approach (Groff Jones, 2012). Inclusion of culture The HR practices in Singapore need to consider the inclusion of a culture that could act as a supporting hand to the training process. Knowledge management and organizational learning principles help in incepting a culture that drives the HR practices for the inception of a culture that encourages for innovative thoughts. Moreover, it helps in forming an organizational culture that encourages and welcomes new ideas thoughts from employees. It provides such a working environment in the organization that encourages for a collaborative participation of workforces. Moreover, such an environment does also support giving rewards to the deserving employees. Further, intrinsic and extrinsic modes of incentives given to employees are one of the forms of a motivational approach (Hislop, 2013). In the environment led by KM and OL, the HRM in Singapore can efficiently implement monitor various functions that are important for creating maintaining the required workforces. The formal mode of training conduction and development programme can very well guide to the organizational needs. However, for the sharing of knowledge in between the fresh and experienced employees needs to be addressed with the inclusion of proper culture in the HR practices (Kasemsap, 2013). Employees are a valuable asset for an organization and for a country. However, there are shortages of sufficient workforces in Singapore. It needs to be filled up by a quick inclusion of employees either from the local or from the other international countries. The inclusion needs to be accompanied by a proper supplying of training development programme. It is helpful in bringing a competitive spirit into employees, which is required for the execution of innovative ideas to bring the profitability (Levine, Thompson, Messick, 2013). Succession planning is an important tool as discussed earlier in this assignment, which is useful in imparting knowledge sharing in between the predecessor and the existing employees. Under the current circumstances in Singapore, it becomes necessary to incept the succession strategy in the HR practices as it helps in restoring the earned skills of predecessor into the fresh employees. In the absence of this strategy, the HRM might witness a notable gaps created by the departure of experienced employees. Moreover, the successor might not be able to grab its hold on the occupied skills. The HRM of Singapore need to think on seriously implementing the succession technique as it enables the transference of information skills in between the successor and the experienced employees (North Kumta, 2014). Knowledge imparting The best way to incept the execution of succession strategy might be to include the knowledge imparting from the predecessor for a shorter period if possible. The current programme at the time of final contract with the experienced employees does include the collection of all the Company belongings, making of last payroll, conducting a brief discussion and few others. The addition of a training programme from the predecessor for a shorter period might boost the production of skilled employees that could actually fill the gaps created by the one nearing the retirement. However, it all depends on the retiring person. They need not to be forced to undergo the kind of innovative programmes that are best suited to the current circumstances (Paulin Suneson, 2012). With the existing shortage of labour in Singapore, the companies might face a strong challenge ahead of them in terms of knowledge gap. Moreover, in the coming five years, they need to face the consequences of workforce shortages. To be competitive in the market and to incept new ideas to achieve the same, the HRM needs to implement the succession strategies. With the help of KN OL, the HRM can consider induction of this strategy alongside the training the development programme. The HR practices need to analyse the employees that are coming closer to their retirement and their achieved performances. Indeed, this is immensely helpful in short listing the candidates that can become the part of succession planning programme (Rao, 2012). To be competitive in the next five years, the HR practices need to analyse the progress of the incepted fresh talents based on their allotted roles responsibilities. It is necessary for realizing the necessity of incepting the training development programme in the organization. Competition is very high at present, which is only going to be bigger bigger in the coming five years. To respond to the growing competitiveness in the market with a capable workforce, organizations need to develop the multidimensional characteristic in employees. It is only possible if their performance is analysed ion a regular basis (Rollett, 2012). Training Development programme The ageing workforce of Singapore might face the shortages of labour in the next five years. To stay in competition, Singapore needs to restructure its training development programme to respond efficiently to the created urgency. It also needs to consider the succession form of strategy as this is helpful in preventing any knowledge gap with the departure of experienced employees. Moreover, it is helpful in avoiding the loss of vital knowledge as it can happen with the retirement of baby boomers in Singapore. By incepting KM and OL, companies in Singapore can encourage its HR practices for the inclusion of succession planning along with the training the development programme (Wiig, 2012). The above said principle might also help the organization in analysing the feasibility of the hired employees after the exclusion of baby boomers on their retirement. It is helpful in analysing the progress of the hired personal, which enables the HRM in distinguishing the talents pool from the incapable workforce. It is not advisable to fill the gaps created by baby boomers with the incapable workforces. It rather requires filling this up with the skilled and dedicated employees that are responsive to the added programmes in the environment of KM and OL. As per the belief of the Singapore government, the inclusion of added programmes under the governance of organization learning and knowledge management is of utmost urgency (Fuller, 2012). The OL and KM principles can well hold an organization firm strong under the threatening circumstances that is probable to happen after the exclusion of experienced workforce. The next five years in Singapore, might witness a huge shortage in its workforce, which can well be controlled and reduced with the help of knowledge management and organizational learning principles. These principles do support the inclusion of succession plan, which is very important for the imparting of knowledge from the predecessor into the fresh talents. The HR practices in the Singapore needs to incept a continuous development and training programme along with succession strategy to ensure a balanced move of the workforce. It is very important for the sustenance of skills in existing employees (Geisler Wickramasinghe, 2015). Conclusion Training followed by a development programme forms the backbone of an organization or a country. It imparts knowledge sharing into employees of irrespective domains. The ageing labours of Singapore have created an urgency to hire a capable and sufficient number of employees that could well occupy the gaps created by the removal of experienced labour. Moreover, organizational learning and knowledge management plays an important role in such circumstances by assimilating the traditional form of training development programme with the succession strategies. The HRM of Singapore needs to include the OL KM principles into their practices to form an efficient bench of workforce that could fill the probable gaps in the next five years. Bibliography Argote, L. (2012). Organizational learning: Creating, retaining and transferring knowledge. Springer Science Business Media. Becerra-Fernandez, I., Sabherwal, R. (2014). Knowledge management: Systems and processes. Routledge. Dent, M., Whitehead, S. (. (2013). Managing professional identities: Knowledge, performativities and the'new'professional. Routledge. Deshpande, A. (2012). Workplace spirituality, organizational learning capabilities and mass customization: An integrated framework. International Journal of Business and Management, 7(5), 3-18. Fuller, S. (2012). Knowledge management foundations. Routledge. Geisler, E., Wickramasinghe, N. (2015). Principles of knowledge management: Theory, practice, and cases. Routledge. Grandori, A. (. (2012). Interfirm networks: organization and industrial competitiveness. Routledge. Groff, T., Jones, T. (2012). Introduction to knowledge management. Routledge. Hislop, D. (2013). Knowledge management in organizations: A critical introduction. Oxford University Press. Kasemsap, K. (2013). Synthesized framework: Establishing a causal model of organizational learning, knowledge management, knowledge-sharing behavior, and organizational performance. International Journal of the Computer, the Internet and Management, 21(2), 29-34. Levine, J. M., Thompson, L. L., Messick, D. M. (2013). Shared cognition in organizations: The management of knowledge. Psychology Press. North, K., Kumta, G. (2014). Knowledge management: Value creation through organizational learning. Springer Science Business Media. Paulin, D., Suneson, K. (2012). Knowledge transfer, knowledge sharing and knowledge barriersthree blurry terms in KM. The Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, 10(1), 81-91. Rao, M. (2012). Knowledge management tools and techniques. Routledge. Rollett, H. (2012). Knowledge management: Processes and technologies. Springer Science Business Media. Wiig, K. (2012). People-focused knowledge management. Routledge.

Analysis of Goodwives essays

Analysis of Goodwives essays According to Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, men used women both positively and negatively. From my understanding of the book Good Wives there were more negative then positive ways of how men used women between 1650 and 1750 in Northern New England. Here I will briefly explain the one and only positive aspect followed by the negative aspects. I will also express my opin-ion of the relationships between men and women during this time period, whether they were positive or negative. The one and only positive way men (husbands) used women (wives) were as Deputy Husbands. A Deputy Husband would stand in the place of her husband in his absence or if he were unable to perform his duties. Some wives were servile, some were shrews, others were respected compan-ions who shared the authority of their spouses in the management of family affairs (p. 38). In performing her husbands duties, a wife not only gained the respect of her husband, but she also gained his trust as well. As a consort (a consort tuned her life to her mates (p. 9)), a wife would be aware that in strengthening her husbands business affairs she strengthened her own. The first negative aspect of how men used women was as Christians. Being a Christian was not negative, but how women were treated in the Church was negative. A Christian seized spiritual equality and remained silent in the church. Among the Congregationalist majority in New England, women could sign the covenant, enlarge the scriptures, write and even publish, but only among the Quakers could they hold office or preach in mixed assemblies (p. 9). In others words women were the majority in the church and as the majority they were allowed to sign the covenant and enlarge the scriptures, but they werent allowed to hold office or preach. Women werent even allowed to sit on the main floor ...

Ragtime Essays - Ragtime, Harry Houdini, Escapology, Free Essays

Ragtime Essays - Ragtime, Harry Houdini, Escapology, Free Essays Ragtime In the classic E.L. Doctorow novel, Ragtime, we see the juxtaposition of many motifs to represent Doctorow?s view of the early century. By combining history and fiction Doctorow allows himself to write a semi-accurate interpretation of the early 1900?s while also being able to strongly express his own biases and opinions of the era. The biggest, and perhaps most important theme Doctorow applies in the novel is social tension, or the battle of the rich versus the poor. Other important themes include rebirth, racial tension, and high randomness of events. By using these themes and others, movie makers created a film, which they believe best represents Doctorow?s views. It is apparent that Doctorow clearly favors the poor, lower class, in their struggle for economic and social mobility against the few, rich, upper class citizens. Doctorow?s thoughts are best depicted through the novel?s characters. Tateh, Coalhouse Walker and Sarah are all characters who are portrayed as ?good?. These characters, while representing a wide range of economic success, all symbolize socially challenged individuals. Throughout the novel, Doctorow always chooses these or similar types of characters to be the protagonists. Doctorow wants the reader to feel for Coalhouse?s situation. He wants the reader to hope that Willie Conklin is harmed and the Model T Ford is repaired. On the other hand, Doctorow tells a different tale for the economic elite, upper echelon of society, represented by J.P. Morgan and Henry Ford. Morgan is presented as a snobbish old man, who always gets his way, and we are supposed to feel no remorse for him when his museum is broken int! o. We, the readers, are inclined to agree with Doctorow?s opinion only because that is the way he planned it. Doctorow did not touch on any negative aspects of Coalhouse Walker?s actions, such as innocent firemen that he killed, and their families, perhaps, because this might sway the reader?s belief as to Coalhouse?s innocence. The film, Ragtime, does support Doctorow?s social tension beliefs, however it leaves more things open for the reader to decide. For example the book gives the impression that Coalhouse is killing the racist bad firemen. The movie shows him shooting and blowing up firemen, who perhaps could be ?good? people. The concept of rebirth is used liberally by Doctorow. Doctorow commonly has a character go through a major transmogrification, or rebirth. This rebirth ordinarily happens when moving from one social class to another. Tateh, Houdini, Coalhouse, and mother?s younger brother and clearly are examples of these rebirths. When Tateh goes from being a poor street peddler to a rich movie maker, he goes through a transformation. Tateh starts dressing and acting a lot differently, perhaps also forgetting his Jewish heritage and 5000 years of oppression. Houdini?s alteration is greater than Tateh?s. Houdini goes from a not so well off family to a rich and famous escape artist. Through this social change, Houdini changes his Jewish name Erich Weiss to a more appropriate Christian name of Harry Houdini. As well as changing his name, Houdini also seemed to forget his background. However, later in the novel we find out that Houdini did in fact not forget his heritage. He just cha! nged his name as a career move. Coalhouse Walker?s rebirth is much more dramatic and swift than Tateh?s or Houdini?s. Coalhouse goes from a fine upstanding citizen to a disgruntled man, caught at the end of a racist prank, and out for revenge. At one point, "He sat down with a sheet over his shoulder and permitted one of the young men to shave his head and his neat mustache. The change in him was striking," (). This symbolic and actual rebirth occurs as Coalhouse moves from being a wealthy prominent musician to a fugitive on the run. Mother?s younger brother also goes through a rebirth. His rebirth involves going from a wealthy family to a fugitive gang. Because of this social change, Doctorow has mother?s younger brother go through a rebirth as well. This was in the form of him putting black makeup on his face to fit in with Coalhouse?s black gang. All four of these examples express Doctorow?s opinion that in order to go through a social change, one must go

Causes and Effects of Unemployment and Examination of Government Essay

Causes and Effects of Unemployment and Examination of Government Policies to Reduce It - Essay Example There are four major categories of Unemployment: Cyclical, Classical, Frictional and Structural (Politics.Co.Uk, 2011). Each of these categories of unemployment has different roots. Cyclical unemployment is mainly linked to variations in the business cycles. It often takes place when the economy is passing through a recession. In such a phase, the demand for goods and services decreases in the economy, which results in firms cutting down on output and laying off workers. This is considered to be the chief cause of Unemployment. The 2007-08 global recession resulted in soaring cyclical unemployment in the United Kingdom with the unemployment figures going past 2.5 million in May 2010, the highest for almost two decades (Kornacki, 2011). The second important category of Unemployment is Classical unemployment. It is also known as Real Wage Unemployment. It takes place when an attempt is made to synthetically keep the wages above the equilibrium formed between the supply and demand curve s. For instance, economic institutions such as a strong trade union may influence the movement of wages beyond the equilibrium resulting in surplus labour supply and thereby causing Classical Unemployment. Frictional Unemployment is the third category of Unemployment. This type of unemployment is related to people being in between jobs. It is considered to be the time phase between jobs or when a worker is switching from one job to another. It is believed to be an everlasting phenomenon in the economy as there are always employers finding workers and workers searching jobs. Mismatch between workers and employers often occur in the economy due to disparity of interests between them with regard to factors such as payment, location, mind-set, etc. The last major category of Unemployment is the Structural Unemployment. It is usually caused due to mismatch of skills and location. For instance, there may be jobs available which require certain type of skills; however, if the workers do no t possess the appropriate skills, then this results in unemployment. Structural Unemployment in the coal mining industry of the United Kingdom rose sharply in the early 1980’s as new technology in the form of Nuclear energy came into the picture. In the case of a mismatch of location, jobs may exist in some other part of the country but workers might not be able to move there due to personal or other reasons (Himmelweit et al, 2001). There are benefits as well as costs of unemployment. The prime benefit associated with this phenomenon is that it keeps the inflation down, which too has severe effects on the economy. The other benefits in the view of the employers are that workers are available to employ; and they would work hard as well, due to the fear of getting unemployed. There are mainly two types of costs of unemployment, individual and social. With regard to the individual, unemployment paralyzes the individual’s ability to tackle financial requirements related t o oneself or one’s family, resulting in stress and diseases which can lead to severe depression as well. Socially, higher unemployment means lack of utilization of economic resources, particularly labour. Moreover, unemployment also leads to social evils such as

Domestic Violence and Human Trafficking in Latin America Research Paper

Domestic Violence and Human Trafficking in Latin America - Research Paper Example â€Å"Latin America and the Caribbean have the highest rates of gender violence of any region of the world excluding fundamentalist Muslim countries, where statistics are not kept and discrimination against women is institutionalized† (â€Å"Half†). This paper will focus primarily on Latin America (namely Colombia and Ecuador) and the human trafficking and domestic violence issues these two countries face, the reasons for the prevalence of these issues in these countries, and what can be and is being done about them. According to Berry, â€Å"domestic violence† refers to â€Å"abuse by one person of another in an intimate relationship† (1). Domestic abuse is not restricted to husband-wife or boyfriend-girlfriend, but can also include sibling abuse, elder abuse, and child abuse; however, for this paper, the focus on violence against women will be discussed. Berry goes on to discuss the lack of boundaries in the issue of domestic violence; she states that â€Å"statistics have proven that abuse knows no boundaries: racial, ethnic, religious, or socioeconomic. It occurs among the very rich and the very poor, the highly educated and the illiterate, in all parts of the world† (9). Domestic abuse not only indicates foundational disintegration within a family unit, but can also be an indicator of the same sort of internal rot at a societal level. â€Å"It emerges as a serious violation of human rights that abrogates the women’s right to dignity, equality, autonomy, and physical and mental well being,† state Mehrotra and Banerjee, observing the issue at the personal level. Nodding at the societal level, Mehrotra and Banerjee go on to say that â€Å"violence is not only a manifestation of unequal, disempowering and unjust power relations, but is also a costly economic phenomenon resulting in significant looses of productive potential† (38). A country cannot move forward and hold itself back at the same time. A land cannot be both full of success

The International Operations Of Mcdonalds Business Essay

The International Operations Of Mcdonalds Business Essay The macroeconomics factors are one of the most main structure outlooks for a exacting business. It has is own analysis system to make sure that every business is done according to what is planned and organized. In that case, there are many in macro environment that will affect the planning and decision of managers of any businesses. Changes of tax, new laws, trade obstacle changes in demographic, changes in government document are some example of macro change. Some of these examples of factors do help in controlling the beyond which control the business. The examples of business which are in leading of pestle control are McDonalds. QUESTION 1 MAIN BODY POLITICAL FACTORS: The international operations of McDonalds are dramatically influenced by the solo countries policies obligatory by the government. For information, there are some groups in the foreign countries that clamors for state actions regarding in health implication in eating fast food. They have discovered that there are harmful substances in the fast food which can lead to obesity if it is taken regularly. On the other side, the company is under control of the individual policies and regulations of the operations. The market focuses more on different areas which concerns on health, environment, and the protection of workers. All of these elements are seen under the government control of licensing the restaurant in respective states of the country. For information, there are an impending legal dispute in McDonalds franchise, in India, where certain encroachment of rights and violation of sacred laws pertaining to the inside of the fast food. Extension of meat in the menu meal in India is officially unpleasant against the religion. There are also other studies those points to the violation of McDonaldss branches with reference to the existing employment laws in the particular target market. Since it is apparent that the company is increasing dramatically, it is fair to be deal with the proper establishment in a respective approach in the market that they intend to operate with. In this way the company can afford a better way in set up, a better relationship with the government. ECONOMICAL FACTORS Organizations in the fast food industry are not excused from any disagreement and troubles. In exact, they have their own individual concerns in linking economic control. Branches and franchise of McDonalds have the inclination to experience hardship in instance where the company of the respective countries, are hit by inflation and changes in the exchange of the rate. The customer therefore are facing, with a stalemate, of going over their individual account perhaps or not they should use up more on these fast food chain like McDonalds. Moreover these chains may have many to put up with the issues of the effects based on the economic environment. In this case, their problems are depending on the response of the consumers, on these essentials how it could influence the general sale In regarding the operations of the company, McDonalds tend to import many of their raw materials, into a specific countrys territories if there is dearth of supplies. The exchanges of rate oscillate that plays a major roles in the operations of the company. For information, McDonalds stores have to take great deal in deliberation with reference to their microenvironment. The international supply for the country, as well as the existing rate is a part overall for the components where assurance success is needed for the foreign operations of McDonalds. Moreover, it is essential that the company be cognizant of the tax accessible condition needed by the individual government on which they operates. These actually guarantee that planned operations of the McDonalds franchise. In the same way, the company also has to declare the economic standing of the company that they operate. The rate at which the economy of that particular country determine growth, by purchasing power of the consumers in that country. Besides that, in case a franchise operates in certain economically weak country, their value of the products should be higher than the other developing products in the market, then these franchise should know some steps in maintaining the economic scale. In idea, before penetrates the market, the market should carry out a very well conduct market research, especially in movements of the economic environment. SOSIO -CULTURAL FACTORS Articles regarding the international strategies of McDonalds seem to function on several fields to guarantee profitable returns for the organization. To illustrates, the organization has improve in establish a positive mind-set from their regular consumer. McDonaldss indulge types of consumers with definite variety of characteristics. It is also has noted company have given market markets such as United States and India. McDonalds has launched a very sensible valued set of meal, which produces a reliable level of amount to the respective markets where it operates. Additionally, those who are aged just below thirty five are said to be more common consumers of McDonalds franchise. The multi character of business is reflected nowadays towards the tough significance of the details regarding the subject of the accessible markets. This method is fundamentally identified as a market research in the business field. Details regarding the request and possible fields of markets would double as obstacle towards the success of the company, if this area of operations abandoned. In the case of McDonalds they establish a proper plan system in determining the needs of the markets. The company uses the consumer behavior concepts in as a product personality and purchase plan to its advantage which is clearly apparent in case of India, as the company has planned in removing Pork and Meat products from the menu. McDonalds should obtain the applicable details from the target of markets in an additional to individuals customers of the organization. It is imperative that before a franchise is granted to a particular business, a well sketch and complete market research should be conducted initially so as to establish the acts that would confirm to good mores, public policies, and ethics of the said countrys society. Similarly, the company should find out the shifts, in areas example like the consumer behavior and purchasing formula of the markets. Basically, this is the key condition for perform a suitable customer relationship management organization. Moreover the company should also make a review learn more about the local society to understand better and produce more blueprint for a better product. TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS McDonalds produce order for their own products. There are similarly some claims that McDonalds are disposed to curiosity the younger populations more. Other revelation in marketing policy is perceptible in the commercials they use. Other advertising department has employed other person to subsidize for their company foodstuffs. The like has developed into endorsers for McDonalds wide-reaching I am loving it crusade Moreover the business McDonalds have appreciably infused with new machinery. Essentials like the account coordination and administration of the assessment sequence of company allows for easy payments for their purveyor and other retailer which the individual stores in particular markets to transaction with. The amalgamation of equipment in the procedure of McDonald does have a propensity to add charge to their goods. Basically, this is apparent in the enhancement on its value chain. The development of the supply system as well as its provide chain consent to the company to function in an worldwide perspective. McDonalds use internet to their pro. The rate-efficiency, interactivity and authentic time possessions of the statement are a high-quality way to find dealer. The corporation must also look into the utilize of IT to develop their supply function. As the process in its inbound and outbound look up company will expect important savings and decline of expenditure in the operations. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS The public tasks of McDonalds on the country are dominant to the process of the business. These grip indictment of environmental dent. Among the motive why they are stimulating which such assert is the employ non-biodegradable material for their drinks glasses and Styrofoam reserves for the food. Several municipal clusters in India have made procedures to make the McDonalds authorization in India of the relatively profuse use of Styrofoam containers and the consequential abuse of the environment. The company should find out the environmental command that rule the operations in every market. It should also observe the dissipate dumping of the corporation. McDonalds should reduce the usage of Styrofoam resources and synthetic cups. Unvarying update of the social corporate duty is very important. This should also require that the headquarters should take in hand, a approach of internal organize of those that would disobey upon this company goal. Sanctions such as annul of the franchise authorize or a particularly high fine should be establish to serve as prevention or a violation. LEGAL FACTORS There has been the persistent bellowing in disagreement to the fast food production. This has likewise made, McDonalds relate a more careful contemplation on their corporate common responsibilities. The status of McDonalds is actually a very enormous issue. Seen on the website of the company, it look as if that they have obtain tread to take in hand the key social criticize that they have been rebuke them in the long-ago decades. The company has offered their consumers the applicable data that they need with allusion to the dietary essence of their product. This is to focus to the advice of obesity charged aligned with the foodstuffs of the company. As a specialized fast food operator, there are many convention and dealings that McDonalds should go after. McDonalds should look after its reliability and consumer assurance by make sure all resources and procedure are as declare or must tag on. The company should appoint local guidance to deal with the permissible disagreement in individual markets on which the company may come across. This shall make sure the company that the lawyers that will grip their legal dealings are more versed with the legal management that would relieve out certain difficulty on their maneuver. QUESTION 1 CONCLUSION As we all know that the most major role of this cohort is the grouping of globalization and internationalization in the business subdivision. Developments in the global settings have an consequence on the more exacting factors in the process in individual association. Modification could take place and entail concentrated modification to the process such that it could have an unpleasant effect on the complete arrangement of the company. However, as categorize in the above PESTEL breakdown this could be obtain by setting a firm level of suppleness can basically be attain through the associate of both the interior and exterior environment of the corporation. QUESTION 2 INTRODUCTION Sole proprietorship and Partnerships are form of business. Both have their own roles and specialty in forming a business. The advantages and disadvantages are very important in concerning more on the business plannings. Before starting the business, every person who going to start the business should make a research regarding types of business they are going to make decision. So business planning is very important and has to be taken care by each businessman or businesswomen. QUESTION 2 MAIN BODY SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP Also known as Sole Trader. Is a type of business unit that is holds and run by one person and in which there is no official peculiarity between the holder and the trade The owner obtain all turnover (subject to taxes specific to the business) and has boundless liability for all fatalities and credit. Every property of the business is own by the administrator and same goes to all credit in the business. It is a sole proprietorship in similarity with partnerships. A sole proprietorship is a business owned and restricted by one man although he may have many other people functioning under him. A sole proprietorship may use a trade name or business name other than his or her official name. Examples of sole proprietorship business are plumbers, electricians, PC technicians, hairdressers and storekeeper. ADVANTAGES They have the capability to move up capital either widely or privately to bound the personal charge of the officers and manager, and to bound jeopardy to shareholder Sole proprietorships also have the least government official procedure moving it. Owners have complete organize over all the portion of his or her business and can take any administrative decisions that he or she wants to take. It is a simple set up function. DISADVANTAGES Elevate capital for a proprietorship is more tricky because an not linked backer has less peace of mind regarding the use and safety of his or her asset and the investment is more difficult to sanctify other sort of business unit have more citations. The venture may be crippled or refined if the owner becomes sick. Since the business is the same official entity as the proprietor, it causes to survive upon the proprietors decease. Because the enterprise rests entirely on the person, it often has trouble raising long-term possessions PARTNERSHIP Partnership is an unincorporated association which consists of 2-20 members. Partnership does not have a separate legal unit. All partners provide financial bear for the business and enjoy both profits and losses on agreed percentage, depends on the assistance of each individual in the partnership business. Partnerships have unlimited legal responsibility and each partner is jointly liable with the other members for any debt incurred by the business. The agreement between partnerships is usually drawn up by a lawyer (or a legal counsel) which details the contribution of each partner (in cash or in kind). ADVANTAGES No double duty of income or gain from sale of business assets. The assumption for ordinary and necessary expenses taken by partners personally to extent of other income, subject to basis limitation. Flexible portion of items of income and deductions. DISADVANTAGES Unconstrained charge of general partners, including acts done by other partners or employees in furtherance of partnerships business. There are deductions for health insurance same as sole proprietorship. Partnership union strongly suggest and essential if partners wish special allocations of income or assumption. CONCLUSION As a result, partnership is the better way to start up a business. A partnership is the relationships existing between more than two persons who involve on a trade or business. Partnership is something we can share profits and loss together from the production of the business. We can gain experience through starting business with partners, rather then alone. We will get to know more information about starting up a business and we can capable with what we can do with PARTNERSHIP management. In a concluding, starting a business with partner will be more helpful for every person. So, we must know the benefits and loss that we will get through PARTNERSHIP. REFERENCE

The Greatest Literary Emblem of the Middle Ages Essay -- Literary Anal

In order to study the troubadours, it is of high importance to understand the context in which they flourished and developed, which was the Medieval Era. The Middle Ages is the period of European history that goes from the collapse of the Roman civilization to the beginning of the Renaissance, and it extends from about 500 to 1500 ca. (â€Å"Middle Ages†). This period is called the â€Å"Dark Ages† since it is regarded by the Renaissance scholars as a long interval of superstition, ignorance, barbarism, and social oppression due to the fact that the Medieval era was a fight to establish a new society independent from the Roman standards and philosophy. However, it is now acknowledged that it was a dynamic period, in which Europe built a new distinct cultural unit. Moreover, it profoundly reorganized the European political, social, economic, and most importantly cultural structures (â€Å"History of Europe†), but its effects greatly differ from country to countr y, and one of the most influenced countries was France, mainly because of its cultural, artistic (painting, architecture, literature), and philosophical enhancement. The main characteristic of the Middle Ages in France was the development of love and romance, mainly in the literary aspect. Nevertheless, only certain high-class and educated people could have this privilege, and the main representatives of this love and romance literary expansion, despite coming from all kind of social classes, were the troubadours because of their poetry, origin, and values. To begin with, it is important to remember that during the Middle Ages, the great majority of population was not educated, and some people could not even read and write, so nobody was able to produce literary works. Consequently, Ga... ...Britannica. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. . "Bernard de Ventadour." Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. . Maccarone, Christian E. "Les troubadours: au-delà   des chansons d'amour." sssstrinakria.org. Centro Studi Storico-Sociali Sicilani. Web. 14 Mar. 2012. . "Chivalry." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6Th Edition (2011): 1. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 16 Mar. 2012. .

Dementia

Dementia Dementia  has become an all-important  disease  because the population is aging rapidly and the cost of health care associated with  dementia  is ever increasing. In addition to cognitive function impairment, associated behavioral and psychological symptoms of  dementia  (BPSD) worsen patient's quality of life and increase caregiver's burden.Alzheimer's  disease  is the most common type of  dementia  and both behavioral disturbance and cognitive impairment of  Alzheimer's  disease  are thought to be associated with the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) dysfunction as increasing evidence of dysfunctional glutamatergic neurotransmission had been reported in behavioral changes and cognitive decline in  Alzheimer's  disease. We  reviewthe literature regarding  dementia  (especially  Alzheimer's  disease), BPSD and relevant findings on glutamatergic and NMDA neurotransmission, including the effects of memantine, a NMDA receptor antagonist, and NMDA-enhancing agents, such as D-serine and D-cycloserine.Literatures suggest that behavioral disturbance and cognitive impairment of  Alzheimer's  disease  may be associated with excitatory neurotoxic effects which result in impairment of neuronal plasticity and degenerative processes. Memantine shows benefits in improving cognition, function, agitation/aggression and delusion in  Alzheimer's  disease. On the other hand, some NMDA modulators which enhance NMDA function through the co-agonist binding site can also improve cognitive function and psychotic symptoms.We propose that modulating NMDA neurotransmission is effective in treating behavioral and psychological symptoms of  Alzheimer's  disease. Prospective study using NMDA enhancers in patients with  Alzheimer'sdisease  and associated behavioral disturbance is needed to verify this hypothesis. Mental disorders constitute a huge social and economic burden for health care systems worldwide [1], raising the quest ion of effective and lasting treatments. Physical activity (PA) and exercise (EX) continue to gain the attention of practitioners and researchers with regard to prevention and treatment of different psychopathological abnormalities.In the general population, several epidemiological studies have found significant cross-sectional correlations between mental health and PA levels. In an adult US population, regular PA is associated with a significantly decreased prevalence of current major depression, panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, and specific phobia [2]. A study from Norway confirmed this negative cross-sectional association between depression and leisure-time PA of any intensity (not work-related PA), and pointed out that social factors such as social support, rather than biological markers, play an important role [3].Recently, a Dutch study replicated this finding, reporting lower rates of any affective, anxiety, or substance use disorder in subjects who exercised at le ast 1 h/wk, without finding a linear dose-response relationship [4]. Prospectively, the overall incidence of mental disorders and co-morbid mental disorders, as well as the incidence of anxiety, somatoform, and dysthymic disorder, decreases by PA [5]. Furthermore, a four-year prospective study revealed that PA decreases the incidence rates of depressive and anxiety disorders in older adults [6].Finally, ten Have et al. reported in their epidemiological study that patients engaging in regular PA were more likely to recover from their mental illness at a three-year follow-up In psychiatric patients, different mechanisms of action for PA and EX have been discussed: On a neurochemical and physiological level, a number of acute changes occur during and following bouts of EX, and several long-term adaptations are related to regular EX training.For instance, EX has been found to normalize reduced levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and therefore has neuroprotective or even n eurotrophic effects [7-9]. Animal studies found EX-induced changes in different neurotransmitters such as serotonin and endorphins [10,11], which relate to mood, and positive effects of EX on stress reactivity (e. g. , the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis [12,13]). Finally, anxiolytic effects of EX mediated by atrial natriuretic peptide have been reported [14].Potential psychological mechanisms of action include learning and extinction, changes in body scheme and health attitudes/behaviors, social reinforcement, experience of mastery, shift of external to more internal locus of control, improved coping strategies, or simple distraction Several prospective studies have found that a high level of PA seems to delay the onset of dementia (see [74] for a review). Since improvements in strength and endurance after training were found in cognitively impaired patients as well as healthy controls [75], PA interventions are generally feasible in this population.For Alzheimer's disease (AD) , preliminary evidence suggests that EX interventions may improve communication performance [78], Mini Mental State Examination scores and verbal fluency [79], and disruptive behavior [80]. Four studies [81-84] found that PA slowed down and partially reversed the decline in performance of activities of daily living and progression of the cognitive symptoms related to dementia, in contrast to an older study, which did not find improvements in functional ability [85]. Zschucke , E. and Gaudlitz, K.Exercise and Physical Activity in Mental Disorders: Clinical and Experimental Evidence Zschucke , E. and Gaudlitz, K. (2013) Exercise and Physical Activity in Mental Disorders: Clinical and Experimental Evidence. Journal of Preventative Medicine and Public Health  , 46 (1), p. 12-21. Available at: http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC3567313/ [Accessed: 6th Mar 13]. Leptin, an adipocytokine produced in the peripheral system as well as in the brain, is implicated in obesity, food intake, glucose homeostasis, and energy expenditure.Leptin expression levels and signaling pathways may also be linked to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s disease. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that higher circulating leptin levels are associated with lower risk of dementia including Alzheimer’s disease, and lower circulating levels of leptin have been reported in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Leptin receptors are highly expressed in the hippocampus, a brain area involved in learning and memory and severely affected during the course of Alzheimer’s disease.In laboratory studies, several in vivo and in vitro studies have shown that leptin supplementation decreases amyloid-? (A? ) production and tau phosphorylation, two major biochemical events that play a key role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. In this review, we will review the structure of leptin, the type of receptors of leptin in the brain, the various biological functions attributed to this adipocytokine, the signaling pathways that govern leptin actions, and the potential role of leptin in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease.Leptin exerts its functions by binding to the leptin receptor (ObR). This binding can involve several signaling pathways including JAK/STAT pathway, ERK pathway and the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway. Modulation of these pathways leads to the regulation of a multitude of functions that define the intricate involvement of leptin in various physiological tasks. In this review, we will specifically relate the potential involvement of leptin signaling in Alzheimer’s disease based on work published by several laboratories including ours.All this work points to leptin as a possible target for developing supplementation therapies for reducing the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. Leptin is a 146 amino acid protein with a molecular weight of 16 kDa encoded by the  ob   gene and primarily, but not exclusively, expressed by the white adipose tissue (WAT) and is implicated in obesity, food intake, and energy homeostasis. Leptin protein was discovered by the molecular geneticist Jeffrey Friedman in 1994 at Rockefeller University and the work was published in a landmark  Nature  paper in December 1994 [1].The human  ob  gene has been mapped to chromosome 7q31. 3 [2] and encodes a 4. 5 kb mRNA transcript that is translated into a 167 amino acid peptide and subsequently processed in the ER into the 146 amino acid mature leptin protein [1]. Antecedent to the discovery of the leptin protein and positional cloning of the  ob  gene in 1994, the  ob/ob  mouse characterized by hyperphagia and a marked obese phenotype was serendipitously discovered by animal caretakers in 1950 at Jackson Laboratories [3].It was the general consensus that the  ob/ob  mouse possessed a mutation in the  obgene, but this was not elucidated and unequivocall y established until the discovery of the leptin protein and mapping of the  ob  gene by Friedman and colleagues in 1994 who showed that the mutation resulted in the loss of leptin production. In 1966, the  db/db  mouse was discovered, again at Jackson Laboratories, which not only exhibited a similar hyperphagic, obese phenotype, but also hyperglycemia [4].Tartaglia and colleagues in 1995 showed that the  db/db  mouse phenotype can be attributed to the mutation in the  db  gene that codes for the long-form of the leptin receptor obRb [5]. However, it was the seminal work of Doug Coleman and colleagues who demonstrated by a series of parabiosis experiments using  ob/ob  mice and  db/db  mice pairs and established that the  ob/ob  mice lacked a circulating factor whereas the  db/db  mice produced the circulating factor but were not able to respond to it [6,7].The validity of these breakthroughs was affirmed by subsequent discovery of the leptin protein a nd cloning of the  ob  gene [1] as well as the cloning of the  db  gene which coded for the long-form leptin receptor obRb [5]. Further corroboration emanated from the finding that the  db  mice produced the truncated form of obRb that was incapable of transducing leptin-mediated intracellular signal transduction [8-12] and administration of exogenous leptin obviated the obese, hyperphagic, hypothermic, and hypometabolic phenotype in  ob/ob  mice [13-15]. Go to: ————————————————-Leptin – structure, expression, and secretion The crystal structure of leptin has revealed the secondary and tertiary structure of the leptin molecule. The three dimensional crystal structure of leptin depicts the presence of four antiparallel ? -helices (A, B, C, and D) [16]. Two long crossover loops connect the A-B and C-D ? -helices, while a short loop connects the B-C ? - helices [16]. The entire leptin molecule is oblong shaped with the dimensions of 20x25x45 A0[16]. The entire molecule comprising of the bundle of four ? -helical loops adopts a bilayered stratified structure with ? helices A-D in one layer contiguous with ? -helices B-C in the other layer [16]. The conformation adopted by the leptin molecule results in the surface emergence of a few key hydrophobic residues like Phe41, Phe92, Trp100, Trp138, and Leu142  which not only play an indispensable role in the regulation of solubility and aggregation kinetics of the leptin protein, but are also critically requisite for as well as modulate the binding of leptin to the leptin receptor and determine the binding kinetics of the leptin-leptin receptor interaction [16].The three dimensional four-helical bundle crystal structure of leptin exhibits an overt, conspicuous congruence with other cytokines such as growth hormone (GH) [17], leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) [18], and G-CSF (G-colony stim ulating factor) [19], despite lack of primary sequence homology with these proteins or other proteins [1]. Leptin is expressed primarily by the white adipose tissue [1,20] and circulating leptin levels are proportional to the white adipose tissue mass [21,22]. In humans, leptin expression in the subcutaneous adipose tissue is significantly more in magnitude than omental adipose tissue [23-26].Other studies have demonstrated no difference in leptin expression between the subcutaneous and omental adipose tissue [27]. Leptin expression in humans also exhibits sexual dimorphism with circulating leptin levels about 3-fold greater in females than males [25,28,29]. It is now certain that other tissues also produce leptin, including stomach [30,31], mammary gland [32], human placenta [33], ovaries [34], heart [35], skeletal muscle [36], pituitary gland [37], and the brain [37-39]. In the brain leptin mRNA expression and immunoreactivity has been seen in the hypothalamus, cortex, dentate gyr us and the hippocampus of the rat [38,39].Leptin immunoreactivity has also been reported in the mouse and hamster brain [40]. Leptin expression and circulating leptin levels are primarily contingent on the white adipose tissue mass [21,22] and are significantly elevated in obesity [21,22,41,42]. Consistent with this observation, weight loss is associated with a decrease in leptin levels in the plasma [22]. Leptin levels in the plasma also fluctuate in an ultradian manner and exhibit diurnal rhythm [43,44]. Leptin secretion occurs in a pulsatile rhythm with ~30 pulses of leptin secretion in a 24-hour cycle [43,45].Acute caloric restriction reduces leptin levels by ~30% within 24 hours [46-48] whereas caloric excess elevates leptin levels in the plasma by ~35% within 5-8 hours [47]. Therefore, nutritional intake regulates leptin expression in an acute as well as chronic fashion. The physiological and hormonal parameters that increase leptin expression include obesity [21,22,41], overf eeding or excess caloric intake [49,50], insulin [51-55], glucocorticoids [51,52,56,57], glucose [58], tumor necrosis factor ? (TNF? ) [54,59], estradiol [60-62], and IL1 [63,64] among others.The physiological and hormonal factors that decrease leptin expression include androgens [61,65], acute caloric restriction [49,50], growth hormone [66-69], somatostatin [68,70], exposure to cold temperatures [50,71,72], ? 3  adrenergic agonists [70,73-76], long-term exercise [77,78], cAMP (51, 57), PPAR? agonists such as thizolidinediones Pioglitazone, Troglitazone, and Rosiglitazone [79], and free fatty acids [80] among others. Go to: ————————————————- Leptin receptors Leptin receptors (obR) are encoded by the  db  gene [5].The obR are transmembrane spanning proteins that transduce and mediate leptin signaling. The obR exhibit structural and functional homology to the class I cytokine receptors [81,82]. The obR along with other class I cytokine receptors are typified by the characteristic presence of four cysteine residues and a â€Å"WSXWS† motif [81,83] which are a part of multiple fibronectin Type III subdomains in their extracellular domains [84]. The obR transcript undergoes alternate splicing to generate six different receptor isoforms (obRa – ob-Rf) [11].The six isoforms of obR are distinguished by and exhibit very little homology in their intracellular domain [85]. However, all the six isoforms have the same extracellular domain of over 800 amino acids and a transmembrane domain that spans 34 amino acid residues [85]. The six isoforms of obR are pigeonholed into three different groups, namely – short form, long form, and secreted obR [85]. The short-form of obR subsuming obRa (894 amino acids), obRc (892 amino acids), obRd (901 amino acids), and obRf (896 amino acids) possess a short 30-40 amino acid residue intracellular dom ain [85]. bRb (1162 amino acids) is the only functionally active leptin receptor isoform capable of transducing leptin signaling as it contains an intracellular domain that spans ~280 amino acid residues [5]. The obRe isoform (805 amino acids) lacks the intracellular domain and is therefore classified as a secreted soluble receptor and functions as a buffering system involved in the transport of leptin and bioavailibility of free circulating leptin [86,87].The short isoforms obRa, obRc, obRd, and obRf are abundantly expressed in the choroid plexus and endothelial cells of the brain microvasculature that form the BBB and may therefore regulate the flux of leptin across the BBB [88,89]. obRb is pervasively expressed in the human and rodent brain with the highest density in the ventromedial, arcuate, and dorsomedial hypothalamic nuclei [90-93]. obRb is termed the long-form leptin receptor and is solely responsible for propagating signal transduction mechanisms initiated by leptin [5,94 ].The short forms of the leptin receptor ob-Ra, ob-Rc, obRd, and obRf are devoid of intracellular signaling motifs that are obligatory for signal transduction [5]. However the short form receptors obRa and obRc are highly expressed in the choroid plexus and it is speculated that they mediate the uptake of leptin across the BBB (88, 89). obRb expression has been reported in several regions of the rodent and human brain including the hypothalamus [90,92,93], hippocampus, brain stem (nucleus of the solitary tract and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus), amygdala and the substantia nigra [92,93,95,96].In the hippocampus leptin receptor immunoreactivity is observed in the CA1/ CA3 region and the dentate gyrus [95,97]. Furthermore, axonal and somato-dendritic regions and hippocampal synapses exhibit leptin receptor immunolabeling in primary hippocampal cultures [97]. Go to: ——————————————à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- Biological and physiological functions Leptin was discovered as the endogenous hormone that precludes obesity and regulates energy homeostasis [1].Antecedent to the discovery of leptin in 1994, about two decades ago, Doug Coleman had posited the role of a circulating hormone that thwarted obesity via its action in the brain to regulate food intake and energy homeostasis and in the peripheral tissues to regulate energy catabolism, thermogenesis as well as basal metabolism [7]. This was corroborated in the mid 1990s after the discovery of leptin by studies that demonstrated in rodents that administration of exogenous leptin decreased food intake and augmented energy expenditure [13-15,98,99].Leptin administration augments energy expenditure by actuating the ? -oxidation of fatty acids in the mitochondria and also inducing the expression of enzymes involved in ? -oxidation [100]. However, the notion that high levels of leptin augment weight loss and circumvent obesity must be tempered with the fact that high endogenous leptin levels have been effete in thwarting obesity in humans and other mammals [21,22,41]. This can be ascribed to a phenomenon termed â€Å"leptin resistance† [101-103]. Leptin plays a pivotal role in the induction of puberty and fertility.Leptin reinstates puberty, restores fertility in  ob/ob  mice, escalates puberty and fosters reproductive behavior in wildtype rodents [104-107]. Leptin directly regulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis by inducing gonadotropin release and modulating estradiol production in the ovarian follicles [108,109]. Leptin also regulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by attenuating corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) production and release [110,111] as well as directly inhibiting ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)-induced glucocorticoid release from the adrenal cortex [111-113].Leptin is also integrally involved in the physiological homeostasis of the circulat ory system. Emerging evidence implicates leptin in hematopoeisis as leptin is involved in proliferation and differentiation hematopoietic precursors [114-116]. Higher plasma levels of leptin (~100ng/mL), suchas those observed in obese individuals, foster and promote platelet aggregation [117]. Leptin is also one of the most potent inducers of vascular epithelial cell growth and angiogenesis and the short forms and the long-form of the leptin receptor is abundantly expressed in the vasculature [117-119].Go to: ————————————————- Leptin function in the brain Hypothalamus Leptin signaling in the hypothalamus regulates food intake and energy homeostasis in mammals. The arcuate nucleus (ARC), dorsomedial nucleus (DMH), and the ventromedial nucleus (VMH) of the hypothalamus express the obRb in the greatest density. In the ARC, the obRb is abundantly expressed in two disparate neu ronal cell types, ones that express neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) and the others that express pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) [92,120-122].Leptin induced activation of the obRb in the POMC neurons results in depolarization and increased biosynthesis of ? -melanocyte-stimulating hormone (? -MSH) which signals downstream by actuating the melanocortin system comprising of melanocortin-3-receptors (MC3R) and melanocortin-4-receptors (MC4R) expressed by the second order neurons downstream to evoke an anorexiogenic (decreased appetite) response [122-127]. Activation of the melanocortin pathway not only suppresses appetite but also increases energy expenditure by increasing sympathetic tone resulting in ? oxidation of fatty acids in skeletal and adipose tissue. While leptin activates the POMC-expressing neurons, the actuation of obRb by leptin in the NPY/AgRP neurons results in the decreased genesis of NPY and AgRP peptides which are orexiogenic (increase appetite) in nature [122,128]. Therefore, in conspectus, leptin signaling in the hypothalamus results in the decreased expression of orexiogenic peptides (NPY, AgRP) and increased expression of anorexiogenic peptides (? -MSH) as well as increased energy expenditure in the adipose tissue and skeletal muscle tissue.Hippocampus Leptin receptors are abundantly expressed in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus as well as the dentate gyrus [95,97]. Leptin regulates the excitability and firing of hippocampal neurons via the modulation of BK potassium channels [97]. Leptin also improves memory processing and retention when administered directly into the CA1 region in mice [129] and rodents that are deficient in the leptin receptor (db/db  mice and  fa/fa  rats) exhibit profound deficits in spatial learning and memory [129-131].Treatment of acute hippocampal slices with leptin results in the conversion of short-term potentiation (STP) to long term potentiation (LTP) by enhancing Ca2+  influ x through NMDA receptors [132]. Leptin increases synaptogenesis and aids in memory formation in the hippocampus and is purported to be a cognitive enhancer [133]. Leptin also increases neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult mice [134]. Leptin also plays a critical role in hippocampal neuronal survival by activating the PI3K-Akt and JAK2/STAT3 signal transduction pathways [135].Leptin upregulates the expression of potent endogenous antioxidant enzyme Mn-SOD (manganese superoxide dismutase) and the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL (B-cell lymphoma xL) in a STAT3-dependent manner in the hippocampus [135]. Leptin stabilizes mitochondrial membrane potential and attenuates the glutamate-induced mitigation in mitochondrial membrane potential and also extenuates the free iron-induced augmentation in mitochondrial ROS [135]. Go to: ————————————————- Leptin signalingLeptin binding to its long-form receptor obRb actuates four major signal transduction pathways that are coupled to obRb – JAK/STAT pathway, ERK pathway, PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, as well as the AMPK/SIRT1 signal transduction pathways. JAK/STAT pathway Leptin signaling via the obRb is integrally coupled to the JAK2/STAT3, JAK2/STAT5 and JAK2/STAT6 pathways [10]. The long-form of the leptin receptor obRb is constitutively coupled to Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) via the evolutionary conserved domains proximal to the membrane [136].The binding of leptin to obRb evokes a conformational change in the receptor that actuates JAK2 by phosphorylation at Tyr1007/1008  residues [136]. Activated phosphorylated JAK2 subsequently phosphorylates evolutionary conserved tyrosine residues of obRb [94] at Tyr985, Tyr1077  and Tyr1138  [137,138]. The obRb phosphorylated at Tyr1077  and Tyr1138  serves as a docking site and recruits Srchomology 2 (SH2)- and Src-homology 3 (SH3)-domain comprising roteins that sub sume proteins such as Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3), Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 5 (STAT5), and Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase 2 (SHP2) [139]. The phosphorylated Tyr1138  residue of obRb recruits STAT3 and STAT5 which are subsequently phosphorylated by JAK2 at Tyr705  and Tyr694  respectively. The phosphorylation STAT3 and STAT5 causes their disengagement from the leptin receptor, results in the dimerization of STAT proteins via their phosphotyrosine residues in the SH2 domains [140-142], and culminates in their nuclear translocation [142].In the nucleus, STAT dimers bind to distinct motifs or elements in the DNA called ? -IFN-activated site (GAS) in the enhancer regions of target genes and thereby modulate and regulate gene expression of target genes [142-146]. In the nucleus, the STAT signaling is abrogated by dephosphorylation and subsequent export of STAT proteins from the nucleus to the cytosol [142,14 4,147] or by targeted degradation of the STAT proteins via the Ubiquitin Proteasomal System (UPS) [148].The JAK/STAT pathway is negatively regulated by three classes of proteins, namely – suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS), protein inhibitors of activated STATs (PIAS), and protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTP) [149]. There are eight members of the SOCS family and their expression is induced by JAK/STAT signaling (STAT3 in particular) thereby suggesting the existence of a negative feedback loop that abrogates JAK/STAT signaling [150].The SOCS proteins negatively regulate the JAK/STAT pathway by competitively engaging and occupying the phosphotyrosine residues in obRb via their SH2 domains and obviating the recruitment of STAT proteins to obRb, thereby precluding STAT activation [150,151]. SOCS proteins via their SH2 domains also directly bind to JAK2 and extenuate the kinase activity of JAK2 [150,151]. The PIAS proteins negatively regulate the JAK/STAT signaling pathway by impeding the binding of STAT proteins to the response elements in the DNA by physically interacting and binding with STAT proteins via their zinc-binding RING-finger domains [151].SHP1 and SHP2 are most well characterized protein tyrosine phosphatases implicated in the negative regulation of the JAK/STAT pathway [149]. SHP1 and SHP2 possess two SH2 domains and therefore bind to phosphotyrosines of JAK2 and obRb and effectuate the dephosphorylation of JAK2 and obRb thereby terminating the JAK/STAT signaling [149]. ERK pathway The extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) pathway is an integral part of a larger signaling network called mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway that is activated by leptin signaling via the leptin receptor (obRb).While phosphorylation of Tyr1138  and Tyr1077  are both requisite and mediate the activation of STAT3 and STAT5 respectively, the phosphorylation of Tyr985  of obRb mediates the activation of ERK pathway [138]. Leptin signaling via the obRb evokes the actuation of ERK pathway, both centrally and peripherally, as well as in  in vivo  and  in vitro  experimental paradigms [85]. Leptin evokes the activation of ERK pathway by both JAK2-mediated and JAK2-independent signaling effects [94,152].Contemporary evidence has implicated the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 and the adaptor protein Grb2 (growth receptor bound 2) as the requisite mediators in the leptin-induced activation of ERK signaling pathway [153]. Leptin signaling also activates other members and signaling cascades subsumed under the MAPK signaling pathway, namely p38 [154-157] and JNK pathways [156]. PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway Leptin signaling also induces the activation of the ubiquitous, pervasive, nutrient-sensitive anabolic, and the broad spectrum PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway [152,158-161].Empirical evidence has demonstrated that the adaptor proteins IRS1 (insulin receptor substrate 1) and IRS2 (insulin receptor substrate 2) mediate the leptin-obRb induce d activation of PI3K-Akt pathway [94,158,162]. A multitude of studies have demonstrated that leptin induces the activation of Akt via phosphorylation of Akt at Ser473[163,164]. As a consequence, Akt activation is ensued upon leptin signaling which results in inhibition of GSK3? through phosphorylation at Ser9  residue [165-167].Evidently leptin also activates the serine/threonine kinase mammalian target of Rapamycin (mTOR) in the hypothalamus and macrophages [168,169] through the PI3K-Akt pathway [170]. mTOR is an evolutionary conserved kinase that modulates translation of several mRNA transcripts involved in cell growth and proliferation. mTOR regulates translation by phosphorylation and attenuation of the inhibitor of mRNA translation, eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein (4E-BP) [171-175], as well as through the phosphorylation and activation of S6 kinase (p70S6K1) [176,177]. TOR is autophosphorylated at Ser2481  and exhibits spontaneous intrinsic kinase activity u nder the activation of Akt [178,179]. mTOR phosphorylation and activation is negatively regulated by the TSC1/TSC2 protein complex [170]. Akt phosphorylates TSC2 causing disintegration of the TSC1/TSC2 complex which consequently results in mTOR activation [180]. Furthermore, Akt has been shown to directly phosphorylate mTOR at Ser2448residues and consequently activate mTOR [181,182].Therefore, Akt positively regulates mTOR activation by direct phosphorylation at Ser2448  as well as by indirect means which involves relieving the repressive effects of the upstream inhibitor TSC1/2 complex. Thus leptin, by virtue of its inherent ability to activate Akt, is expected to increase mTOR phosphorylation and activity. AMPK-SIRT1 pathway The 5’AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) is the master regulatory kinase termed the â€Å"fuel gauge† that integrates signals from upstream mediators and effectors of hormones and cytokines to maintain metabolic homeostasis [183].AMPK activati on leads to increase ? -oxidation of fatty acids in the mitochondria and inhibition of lipogenesis [184,185]. Multiple lines of evidence have cogently demonstrated that leptin activates AMPK and consequently increases fatty acid oxidation [186-188]. One exception to this is the hypothalamic neurons, where leptin inhibits AMPK activation to evoke satiety and other hypothalamic effects of leptin [189-191]. In general, AMPK plays a catabolic role and engenders energy production via effects on glucose and lipid metabolism.AMPK activation also effectuates the induction of the NAD+  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ dependent deacetylase SIRT1 (silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog) [192,193], a metabolic master regulator unequivocally implicated in ageing and the regulation of lifespan [194-198] as well as regulating metabolism [199,200]. The anorexic effect of leptin mediated by the activation of POMC neurons in the hypothalamus is contingent on SIRT1 expression and activation in the neurons of the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus [201]. Go to: ————————————————- Role of leptin in Alzheimer diseaseAlzheimer Disease (AD) is a progressive, debilitating and the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder typified by memory impairment and cognitive dysfunction eventually leading to fatality. The gross pathologic hallmarks of autopsied brains of patients with AD include atrophy with widened sulci and narrowed gyri in the temporal, parietal, and frontal lobes as well as the neocortex and cingulated gyrus areas of the cerebral cortex. The entorhinal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus and the para-hippocampal gyrus also exhibit pronounced atrophy due to neuronal loss [202,203].There is a decrease in gross weight of brain by 10-15% in AD patients [202]. The thickness of the six cortical layers (cortical ribbon) is usually reduced by 10-20% in AD [202] and ventricular dilation is apparent prominently in the temporal horn as a consequence of the atrophy of the amygdala and the hippocampus. Furthermore, there is a propensity for the loss of larger neurons than the loss of smaller neurons or glial cells in AD [202]. Microscopically, AD is characterized by two most common and distinct â€Å"hallmark† microscopic lesions namely senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT).Senile plaques are extraneuronal deposits of accumulated and aggregated amyloid-? (A? ) protein in the brain parenchyma, while the NFT are intraneuronal aggregates of protein tau in the hyperphosphorylated state. Other pathological features of the AD brain include synaptic loss, neuronal and dendritic loss, neuropil threads, granulovacuolar degeneration, dystrophic neurites, Hirano bodies, and cerebrovascular amyloid deposition. There is substantial evidence that leptin modulates A? production and metabolism. Chronic peripheral leptin administration in Tg2576 mice has been reported to reduce the brain A? evels [204]. Moreover leptin also decreases the BACE1 activity in SH-SY5Y cell line [204]. Leptin decreases tau phosphorylation explicitly at residues Ser202, Ser396, and Ser404  in retinoic acidinduced differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, differentiated human NT2 cells (NT2N), and rat primary cortical neurons [205-207]. Leptin also increases synaptogenesis and aids in memory formation in the hippocampus and is purported to be a cognitive enhancer [133]. Leptin has been shown to convert STP into LTP in hippocampal cultures and hippocampal slices [132].Recent evidence suggests that leptin facilitates spatial learning and memory [130] and also increases neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult mice [134]. Recent epidemiological studies have also unequivocally implicated decreased leptin levels in the pathogenesis of AD. In the Framingham prospective study, 785 subjects were followed between 1990 and 1994 from the original Framingham cohort [208]. The study conclud ed that leptin levels were inversely related to the risk of developing dementia of the Alzheimer type [208].A year preceding the findings of Lieb and colleagues, a morphometric study in Japan conducted by Narita and group found higher leptin levels were positively correlated with higher hippocampal volumes [209]. Leptin decreases Amyloid-? (A? ) levels by attenuating the genesis and augmenting the clearance of the peptide The A? peptide is derived from a two-step successive proteolytic cleavage of Amyloid-? precursor protein (A? PP) [210]. In the first step, A? PP is cleaved by the membrane-bound protease BACE1 (? -site APP cleaving enzyme 1) (also called ? secretase) to generate CTF? (carboxy terminal fragment ? ) (also known as C99 fragment) [211-215] which in the second step is subsequently cleaved by the ? -secretase complex to generate A? peptide [216-218]. According to the â€Å"amyloid cascade hypothesis†, A? is considered as the culpable factor in the instigation and progression of all the neurodegenerative events that characterize AD [219]. A plethora of studies have demonstrated that leptin decreases A? levels in several  in vivo  and  in vitro  paradigms [204,220-223]. Leptin has been shown to mitigate A? roduction by extenuating BACE1 activity in neural cultures [204]. Recent studies have implicated the AMPK/SIRT1 pathway in the leptin-induced modulation of A? levels [222]. Emerging data from our unpublished work has not only corroborated the finding that leptin regulates A? metabolism via SIRT1, but also implicated the ubiquitous transcription factor NF-? B as a SIRT1 target downstream in the modulation of A? genesis (unpublished). Leptin decreases A? levels by targeting all facets of A? metabolism, namely – production, clearance, and degradation.We have shown that leptin increases the expression levels of insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) putatively by activating the Akt pathway [223], thus augmenting the degradation of A?. Fur thermore, leptin also increases the expression levels of LRP1 [223], suggesting that leptin may foster the uptake of A? by astrocytes and microglia or reuptake of A? by neurons and therefore target A? for intracellular degradation or for clearance across the blood-brain-barrier (BBB). Leptin also effectuates the ApoE-mediated clearance of A? [204].Specifically, leptin dose-dependently increased the LRP1-mediated uptake of ApoE-bound A? , therefore committing A? toward the endosomal/lysosomal degradation pathway [204]. Leptin attenuates BACE1 expression and activity The first line of evidence linking leptin signaling dyshomeostasis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease emanated from the work of Tezapsidis and colleagues [204], who demonstrated in neural cultures from transgenic mice that leptin mitigates BACE1 activity by evoking changes in lipid composition of lipid rafts of cell membranes.Furthermore, the study also demonstrated that the lipolytic ability of leptin as a conseque nce of increased ? -oxidation of fatty acids and decrease  de novo  synthesis of fatty acids and triglycerides underlies the mechanistic link between the effects of leptin on lipid composition of membranes and BACE1 activity. Recent data from our studies [223] and other laboratories [221] cogently demonstrate that leptin negatively regulates BACE1 expression, both  in vitroand  in vitro  paradigms.Moreover, Greco and colleagues have attributed this effect of reduced BACE1 expression on the ability of leptin to induce PPAR? expression and activation [221]. Indeed, leptin is a well characterized inducer of PPAR? expression and activity [220,224]. In light of this, it is important to reiterate that multiple lines of evidence exist in current literature demonstrating the role of PPAR? as a negative regulator of BACE1 expression [225]. Another mediator of leptin induced modulation of BACE1 expression may be the transcription factor STAT3.The BACE1 promoter contains a multitude of STAT3 binding sites [226]. Multiple lines of evidence have implicated STAT3 in the regulation of BACE1 expression [226-228]. Leptin may also modulate BACE1 activity via the activation of the PI3K/Akt and ERK signaling pathways [229]. BACE1 expression is also modulated by the master transcription factor NF-? B [230]. We have found that leptin represses NF-? B transcriptional activity via induction of SIRT1 expression and activity and thereby attenuates BACE1 expression (unpublished).Furthermore, inhibition of SIRT1 activity significantly compromised the mitigating effect of leptin on BACE1 expression (unpublished). Therefore, the entire range of discrete signal transduction pathways activated by leptin may be implicated in the modulation of BACE1 expression. Leptin mitigates tau phosphorylation It is now the consensus that tau hyperphosphorylation precedes and leads to PHF formation in NFT [231] and aberrant tau hyperphosphorylation is implicated in neurodegeneration in AD [232-23 6].Recent studies by Tezapsidis and colleagues as well as our work has cogently demonstrated that leptin decreases hyperphosphorylation of tau, primarily by the activation of known canonical signal transduction pathway coupled to leptin receptors. Firstly, Greco  et al. demonstrated  in vitro, in SH-SY5Y and NTera-2 human neuronal cell lines, that leptin reduces the phosphorylation of tau at Ser202, Ser396, and Ser404  residues [205]. In the same study, it was shown that leptin was ~300-fold more potent than insulin at mitigating tau phosphorylation and the activation of AMPK pathway was implicated in mediating this effect [205].The following year, the same group systematically investigated the involvement of other signal transduction pathways activated by leptin that may contribute to the attenuation of tau phosphorylation and concluded that leptin-induced activation of Akt, p38 MAPK, as well as AMPK were all intricately involved [206]. Notably, of great mechanistic importanc e, was the revelation that all the three aforementioned pathways activated by leptin, culminated in the phosphorylation of the tau kinase GSK3? at Ser9  residue leading to the inhibition of its kinase activity.Therefore, leptin-induced activation of Akt, p38 MAPK, and AMPK signal transduction pathways converged at the focal point – GSK3? , a bona fide tau kinase [206,207]. Data from our studies carried out in organotypic slices from the hippocampi of adult rabbits has also cogently demonstrated that leptin inhibits GSK3? -induced tau phosphorylation at AT8 (Ser202, Thr205) and PHF1 (Ser396, Ser404) epitopes via the activation of Akt [223,237]. Of greater importance and relevance, was the finding that 8-weeks of leptin treatment in CRND8 transgenic mice resulted in a ~2-fold decrease in tau phosphorylation at AT8 and PHF1 epitopes [221].Leptin fosters synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity Several studies have shown that synaptic dysfunction and synaptic loss are the cardina l hallmarks of incipient AD [238-244]. Electron microscopy [238,241,245-248], immunohistochemical and biochemical studies [240,249-251] have demonstrated that synaptic loss in the neocortex and the hippocampus is an early episode in Alzheimer’s disease [252,253]. Synaptic loss is also the most important structural correlate of cognitive impairment in AD [250,254-260]. Synaptic dysfunction can be detected in patients diagnosed ith mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a condition which may or may not progress to AD and characterized by many as a prodromal state of AD [247,261]. Leptin plays an indispensable role in learning, memory, and maintenance of synaptic plasticity [262]. Leptin receptor mutant  db/db  mice and  fa/fa  rats have deficits in spatial memory and inadequate short term memory processing as assessed by the Morris water maze [130] and T-maze footshock avoidance test paradigms [129]. In the CA1 region of the hippocampus, leptin exclusively enhances the NMDA r eceptor-mediated synaptic transmission [132].Leptin facilitates the trafficking of NMDA receptors to the plasma membrane and this may contribute to the effect of leptin on enhancing the NMDA receptor-mediated current [133]. This was also corroborated in a  Xenopus  oocyte model system expressing recombinant NMDA receptors [132]. Leptin evokes the conversion of STP to LTP in acute hippocampal slices. Further delving into the molecular mechanism underlying this effect has implicated the PI3K/Akt and ERK signaling cascades at the nexus as the inhibitors of these signaling pathways mitigated this effect of leptin [132].Furthermore, in the CA1 region of the hippocampus, leptin also fosters the induction of a novel form of LTD and this effect was attributed to NMDA receptor activation [263]. The study by Durakoglugil also examined the signal transduction cascades involved in the induction of this novel LTD by leptin and concluded that this effect was contingent on the PI3K signaling c ascade, but independent of the ERK signaling pathway [263]. In addition to regulating synaptic strength by modulation of LTP and LTD, leptin also fosters synaptogenesis.The leptin deficient  ob/ob  mice have decreased synapse density and exogenous leptin corrects this deficit in these mice [264,265]. Leptin also induces the expression of a multitude of pre- and postsynaptic proteins such as synapsin2A and synaptophysin in the hippocampus [266]. Leptin also has a profound effect on dendritic morphology. Leptin augments filopodial stabilization, fosters mobility and boosts their density, thus promoting synapse formation [267]. Interestingly, this effect of leptin on filopodial stability and density is contingent on ERK signaling pathway and not on the PI3K signaling pathway [267].Leptin increases neuronal survival and mitigates cell death There is growing consensus that leptin is a growth and survival factor in the CNS. Leptin increases the viability of SH-SY5Y cells and suppresse s apoptosis by down-regulation of caspase-10 and TRAIL and this effect is contingent on the ability of leptin to activate the JAK-STAT, PI3K-Akt, as well as ERK signaling pathways [268]. Leptin has been shown to exert neuroprotective properties in cultured MN9D rat dopaminergic cells against 6-OHDA.Leptin also averted the 6-OHDA-induced dopaminergic cell loss in the substantia nigra of mice when administered intracranially [269]. This pro-survival effect of leptin on dopaminergic neurons was attributed to the JAK2-dependent activation of the ERK signaling pathway resulting in increased levels of survival factors p-CREB and BDNF [269]. Our recent work has unequivocally demonstrated that leptin upregulates the expression of Insulin-like Growth Factor – 1 (IGF-1), a known neurotrophic and survival factor in the brain [270].Leptin has also been shown to attenuate apoptotic cell death of cultured cortical neurons in an  in vitro  oxygen-glucose deprivation model of global isch emia [271]. Furthermore, the study by Zhang  et al. , also cogently showed that intraperitoneal administration of leptin in mice reduced the infarct volume and significantly improved behavioral parameters in a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model of global ischemia [271]. This effect of leptin was attributed to the activation of ERK signaling pathway as the general inhibitor of ERK signaling abolished this effect of leptin, both  in vitro  and  in vivo  [271].Another study employing hippocampal cultures has demonstrated that leptin inhibits neuronal cell loss in response to growth factor withdrawal and oxidative insult by evoking JAK-STAT activation leading to enhanced expression Mn-SOD and Bcl-xL and stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane potential [135]. Leptin also mitigated neuronal loss in response to excitotoxic insult evoked by glutamate in hippocampal cultures by the aforementioned molecular mechanism [135]. Leptin also protected the hippocampal neurons fr om kainite-induced damage in response to excitotoxicity evoked seizures in a mice model of temporal lobe epilepsy [135].A recent study found that leptin also attenuates MPP+-induced cell death in neuronal cultures via the activation of STAT3 and inducing the expression of UCP-2 that culminates in the obviation of mitochondrial dysfunction by MPP+  [272]. Of particular interest is the finding that cultured cortical neurons secrete prodigious amounts of leptin in response to oxygen-glucose-serum deprivation that results in enhanced expression of IL-1? and increased intransigence to apoptotic cell death [273].Moreover, neutralization of this endogenous leptin with an antibody resulted in increased susceptibility of these cultured cortical neurons to oxygen-glucose-serum deprivation – induced cell death [273]. The salutary effects of leptin on neuronal viability and function have also been corroborated by electrophysiological studies. One such study has cogently demonstrated th at leptin combats the hypoxia-induced inhibition of spontaneously firing hippocampal neurons by activating the BK channels (large conductance Ca2+  activated K+  channels) [274].Leptin induces proliferation of neuronal progenitors – evokes neurogenesis As Alzheimer disease is typified with selective neuronal loss in the hippocampus and other regions of the brain, the debunking of the dogma that neurogenesis occurs exclusively prenatally and the revelation that neurogenesis persists in the adult mammalian brain has opened novel therapeutic avenues to combat the neuronal loss in AD. Chronic leptin treatment increases hippocampal neurogenesis in mice and induces proliferation of adult hippocampal progenitor cultures [134].This effect of leptin on adult hippocampal neurogenesis is attributed to increased cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus and not enhanced cell differentiation or cell survival [134]. The study by Garza and colleagues unequivocally implicated the JAK2-STAT 3 and PI3K-Akt signal transduction pathways in the leptin induced enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis [134]. Furthermore, leptin rescues the attenuation in adult hippocampal neurogenesis in a mouse model of chronic unpredictable stress-evoked depression via the inhibition of GSK3? nd subsequent stabilization of ? -catenin [275]. Leptin has also been documented to evoke neurogenesis and angiogenesis in a mouse stroke model (Avraham  et al. , 2011). Go to: ————————————————- Conclusion Here we have reviewed the contemporary knowledge on the protective role of the adipokine leptin and its signaling in Alzheimer’s disease. In conspectus, leptin impinges on all facets of Alzheimer’s disease pathophysiology (Figure 1). These attributes of leptin such as the decrease in A? production and increase of A? learance, reduction in tau hyperphosphorylation as well as increased synaptogenesis, increased memory, increased spatial learning, and increased neurogenesis catapult leptin treatment as a unique therapeutic intervention and an indispensable tool in the elucidation of biochemical mechanisms involved in the etiology of the sporadic form of Alzheimer’s disease. Marwarha , G. and Ghribi, O. Leptin signaling and Alzheimer’s disease Marwarha , G. and Ghribi, O. (2012) Leptin signaling and Alzheimer’s disease. American Journal of Neurodegenerative Disease, 1 (3), p. 45-265. Lifestyle nonpharmacological interventions can have a deep effect on cognitive aging. We have reviewed the available literature on the effectiveness of physical activity, intellectual stimulation, and socialization on the incidence of dementia and on the course of dementia itself. Even though physical activity appears to be beneficial in both delaying dementia onset and in the course of the disease, more research is needed before intellectual stimulation a nd socialization can be considered as treatments and prevention of the disease.Through our paper, we found that all three nonpharmacological treatments provide benefits to cognition and overall well-being in patients with age-related cognitive impairments. These interventions may be beneficial in the management of dementia. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with devastating consequences [1]. Despite being the most common cause of dementia, affecting approximately 5. 4 million Americans [2] and almost 50% of people over the age 85 [3], no cure has yet been discovered.Efforts are also focusing on the development of more effective strategies to slow the progression of AD to increase the quality of life of those affected. Even a two-year delay in disease onset would reduce the prevalence of AD among Americans by two million people within fifty years [4]. If an intervention that delayed the onset of AD by five years had been applied back in 1997, we would have seen a 50% reduction in AD incidence [4]. Research on strategies to slow the development and progression of AD is arguably more important now than ever before, since the number of people with AD is expected to nearly triple over he next forty years [4], and dementia is the most important contributor to disability in the elderly [5]. Among others, three nonpharmacological interventions are particularly relevant as they might positively influence cognition, general functioning, and overall quality of life. These three strategies arephysical exercise,  intellectual stimulation,  and  social interaction. While there are studies that evaluate the role of individual and multimodal interventions on AD, there is a lack of literature on the combination of all three.The purpose of this paper is to review key areas of the literature that focus on the effects of physical exercise, intellectual stimulation, and socialization strategies on AD evolution, as they collectively play an important ro le in the management of Alzheimer's disease. Physical exercise encapsulates both aerobic exercises (e. g. , walking and cycling) and nonaerobic exercises (e. g. , strength and resistance training; flexibility and balance exercises). For intellectual stimulation, we examine studies that have evaluated the prognostic effects of either cognitive hobbies (e. g. reading, word puzzles, and card games) or cognitive training (e. g. , computer training games/paradigms that target specific cognitive domains such as memory and attention). Social interaction is defined as the participation of an AD patient in group-related activities, such as mealtime conversations, support groups, or other forms of social engagement. The health benefits attributed to physical activity are numerous and well known. Exercise has been associated with a lower incidence in many chronic diseases, such as coronary heart disease [6], type 2 diabetes [7], obesity [8], cancer [9], bone loss [10], and high blood pressure [11].We have reviewed the effects of physical exercise on cognition. Higher cardiorespiratory fitness has been related to higher scores on tests of cognitive function [12]. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials examining the relationship between exercise and cognition showed modest improvements in attention, processing speed, executive function, and memory among older adults in the treatment arms [13]. This is highly relevant for the elderly population, as it suggests that physical activity can serve as a preventative measure against age-related cognitive decline [14].Several large longitudinal studies followed older adults without cognitive impairments at baseline and measured rate of incident dementia to clarify the relationship between physical activity and incident cognitive loss. A large prospective study by Podewils et al. identified an inverse relationship between physical activity and dementia risk [15]. Compared to no exercise, physical activity has been linked wi th reduced risks of developing cognitive impairment and dementia [16] with the risk for dementia being further reduced with increasing levels of physical activity.Larson and colleagues found that persons who exercised three or more times per week had a reduced risk of developing dementia compared to those who exercised less, and the reduction was more marked among those with the poorest physical function at baseline [17]. These results were corroborated by Buchman et al. who found that participants in the lowest percentiles of physical activity had more than twice the risk of developing dementia than those in the highest percentiles of physical activity [18].Furthermore, Lautenschlager et al. demonstrated that these results might be transferable to adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and, thus, at high risk for dementia; participants who underwent exercise training showed modest improvements in cognition after six months [19]. Physical exercise has, therefore, been recommen ded as a preventative measure of mild cognitive impairment and dementia [20,  21]. There is much less research focusing on the effect of physical activity in AD patients.This may be due to the challenges of implementing an exercise regime while managing the behavioral and emotional disturbances in AD patients, particularly in the later stages of the disease. However, the results in the available literature are promising. Early research involving AD patients in nonrandomized controlled trials showed significant cognitive improvements among participants who underwent cycling training and somatic and isotonic-relaxation exercises [22,  23]. Physical exercise may have beneficial effects in AD patients beyond cognition as well.A meta-analysis on 30 randomized controlled trials that employed exercise, behavioral and environmental manipulations in patients with cognitive impairment found exercise had positive effects on strength and cardiovascular fitness in addition to improvements in behavior and cognition [24–26]. Further evidence supporting multifaceted positive effects of exercise on AD can be traced to recent randomized controlled trials of physical exercise regimes on AD patients (Table 1). Compared to controls, patients in the intervention programs showed better physical functioning (functional reach, walking, and mobility).After treatment, these patients also showed improved performance of activities of daily living (ADLs), and less cognitive decline and cognitive improvement in some cases. Physical exercise, therefore, appears to be beneficial for AD patients. While the majority of the studies did not find any differences in depression, one study by Steinberg found increased depression and decreased quality of life in patients who underwent the exercise intervention [31]. Further research into the effect of physical exercise on mood and quality of life in AD patients is, therefore, required.When considering the role of exercise on AD, it is impor tant to note that any positive results may be due to a placebo effect, even in randomized controlled trials. However, due to the varied nature of the outcome measures used in these studies, it is unlikely that every intervention group demonstrated significant gains over the controls due to a placebo effect alone. Furthermore, control group members never appeared to show any improvement and often showed higher rates of functional and cognitive decline.Enhanced neuroplasticity might be underlying the improvements seen. Colcombe and colleagues demonstrated that older adults without dementia who performed aerobic exercises had greater grey and white matter volumes compared to adults who engaged in stretching and toning exercises [38]. Exercise has also been associated with functional connectivity between brain networks often affected by age, such as the default mode, frontal parietal, and frontal executive networks, in older adults without dementia [39].While randomized controlled trial s in AD patients examining the relationship between neuroplasticity and exercise are underway, correlational studies examining brain volumes and cardiorespiratory fitness have been done. In AD patients, cardiorespiratory fitness has been associated with brain volume. VO2peak, peak oxygen consumption, has been positively correlated with greater whole brain volume and white matter volume [40], notably in the inferior parietal lobule, hippocampal, and parahippocampal regions [41].Future results of randomized controlled trials will improve our knowledge in this field of research. Overall, physical activity offers promising outcomes for cognition and physical health in the elderly population and AD patients. Engagement in intellectually stimulating activities has been linked with reduced risk of developing AD and intellectual stimulation has been widely explored as a nonpharmacological treatment option for dementia [42]. Among cognitively ormal older persons, randomized control trials em ploying intellectual training concluded that cognitive interventions produce protective and potentially long lasting positive effects in various cognitive domains as well as activities of daily living [43]. There is also evidence that frequent engagement in hobbies, including reading, puzzles, and games, for at least six hours per week reduces the risk of incident dementia [44]. The concept of intellectual stimulation as a preventative measure for dementia in healthy older adults can be parallel to the notion of building a â€Å"compensatory mechanism† or â€Å"cognitive reserve† [45–48].Cognitive reserve refers to the hypothesis that individual differences shaped by inherent characteristics and external sources including intelligence, years of education, occupation, and intellectual activities, may provide neural protective support against dementia [45–47]. It has been argued that these collective life experiences may contribute to building cognitive res erve and, thus, provide skills to compensate for AD pathology [45–47].In other words, a greater cognitive reserve might delay the appearance of dementia despite the presence of neuropathology, after which a rapid progression of cognitive decline may ensue once pathology is significant enough to result in AD diagnosis. Thus, AD patients with higher education and occupation accomplishments suffer more rapid decline in cognitive abilities when compared to AD patients with less education and occupational attainment following diagnosis [49]. Another study by Helzner and colleagues [50] investigated the relationship between premorbid leisure activity and rate of cognitive decline in AD patients.Leisure activities were classified into four categories: intellectual, social, physical, and other. Higher-frequency participation in intellectual leisure activities prior to AD diagnosis was associated with delayed AD onset followed by faster cognitive decline. The study by Helzner and coll eagues [50] provides evidence for the benefits of intellectual stimulation on slowing down AD development. Besides reducing the risk of dementia, cognitive interventions later in life may affect functional decline in AD.Treiber and colleagues [51] explored the association between engaging in cognitively stimulating activities in late life and the rate of cognitive decline in incident AD. This study included a wide range of intellectual activities that required varying levels of cognitive demand, for example, completing puzzles, reading, watching television, listening to music, and cooking. The results suggested that higher-frequency participation in stimulating activities in early stages of dementia resulted in slower cognitive decline.However, as time progressed there was an overall decrease in participation in activities, which might reflect the nature of AD in terms of functional abilities. Intellectual stimulation can be divided into several categories including cognitive stimul ation, cognitive t